Jump to content

Agricultural

Gyara hanyoyin mahaɗar
Daga Wikipedia, Insakulofidiya ta kyauta.
noma
economic sector (en) Fassara da field of work (en) Fassara
Bayanai
Ƙaramin ɓangare naagriculture and forestry (en) Fassara da cultivation (en) Fassara
Bangare naprimary sector of the economy (en) Fassara da Tsarin abinci
Mabiyiwildcrafting (en) Fassara
Lokacin farawa8 millennium "BCE"
Yana haddasaGandun daji
Karatun taIlimin kimiyyar noma, agricultural economics (en) Fassara da agricultural science (en) Fassara
Tarihin maudu'ihistory of agriculture (en) Fassara
Uses (en) FassaraKasar da ta Dace da Noma da Ruwan Daɗi
Classification of Instructional Programs code (en) Fassara01.0000, 01.00 da 01
Earliest date (en) Fassara15 millennium "BCE"

Samfuri:Agriculture footerSamfuri:Horticulture and gardening

Aikin noma na zamani: tsarin ban Ruwa na tsakiya a filin

 Samfuri:Agriculture footerSamfuri:Horticulture and gardening  Aikin noma shine aikin noma ƙasa, shuka, kiwo, da girbi abinci da amfanin gona marasa abinci, da kuma samar da dabbobi. Bayani mafi girma sun haɗa da gandun daji da Kiwon kifi. Aikin noma ya kasance babban abu ne a cikin tasowa na wayewa ɗan adam, inda noma shuke-shuke da dabbobi na gidaje ya haifar da wadataccen abinci wanda ya ba mutane damar zama a cikin birane. Yayinda mutane suka fara tattara hatsi aƙalla shekaru 105,000 da suka gabata, manoma masu tasowa sun fara dasa su kusan shekaru 11,500 da suka gabata. Tumaki, awaki, aladu, da shanu an yi musu gida kusan shekaru 10,000 da suka gabata. An shuka shuke-shuke da kansu a akalla yankuna 11 na duniya. A cikin karni na 20, aikin gona na masana'antu wanda ya dogara da manyan al'adu ya mamaye aikin gona.


Ya zuwa 2021, ƙananan gonaki, wanda yawancin su hekta ɗaya ne (kimanin kadada 2.5) ko ƙarami, suna samar da kusan kashi ɗaya bisa uku na abincin duniya. Bugu da ƙari, biyar daga cikin kowane gonaki shida a duniya sun ƙunshi ƙasa da hekta 2 (4.9 acres) kuma suna ɗaukar kusan 12% na duk ƙasar noma.[1] Dangane da yawan amfani da ƙasa, manyan gonaki sun fi rinjaye.[1] Duk da yake kashi 1% ne kawai na dukkan gonaki a duniya sun fi hekta 50 (120 kadada), sun kunshi fiye da kashi 70% na gonakin duniya.[1] Bugu da ƙari, kusan kashi 40% na duk ƙasar noma ta duniya ana samun ta a gonaki da suka fi hekta 1,000 (2,500 acres). [1]

Gona da noma suna da tasiri sosai ga Tattalin arzikin karkara kuma suna tsara al'ummar karkara sosai, suna shafar ma'aikatan gona kai tsaye da manyan Kasuwanci da ke tallafawa gonaki da yawan manoma.

Ana iya haɗa manyan kayayyakin noma a cikin abinci, fiber, man fetur, da albarkatun kasa (kamar roba da katako). Nau'ikan abinci sun haɗa da hatsi (ƙasa), kayan lambu, 'ya'yan itatuwa, man dafa abinci, nama, madara, ƙwai, da ƙwayoyin cuta. Samar da aikin gona na duniya ya kai kimanin tan biliyan 11 na abinci, [./Agriculture#cite_note-2 [1]] tan miliyan 32 na fiber na halitta [2] da kuma m3 biliyan 4 na itace. [3] Koyaya, kusan kashi 14% na abincin duniya ya ɓace daga samarwa kafin ya kai matakin sayarwa.

PIlimin noma na zamani, kiwon shuke-shuke, agrochemicals kamar magungunan kashe kwari da taki, da ci gaban fasaha sun kara yawan amfanin gona, amma kuma sun ba da gudummawa ga Lalacewar muhalli da muhalli. Zaɓin kiwo da ayyukan zamani a cikin Kiwon dabbobi sun kara yawan fitar da nama, amma sun haifar da damuwa game da jin daɗin dabbobi da lalacewar muhalli. Batutuwan muhalli sun haɗa da gudummawa ga canjin yanayi, raguwar ruwa, sare daji, juriya ta maganin rigakafi, da sauran gurɓataccen aikin gona. Aikin noma yana da mahimmanci ga lalacewar muhalli, kamar asarar halittu, hamada, lalacewar ƙasa, da Canjin yanayi, dukansu zasu iya haifar da raguwar amfanin gona. Ana amfani da kwayoyin halitta da aka canza su sosai, kodayake wasu ƙasashe sun haramta su.

LMagana da fa'ida

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Kalmar noma ta samo asali ne daga kalmar Latin agricultūra wadda aka fassara a matsayin "agricultūra" a Turancin Tsakiya., daga ager 'filin' da cultūra ' noma ' ko 'girma'. An bayyana noma da fannoni daban-daban, a faffadan ma'anarsa ta amfani da albarkatun ƙasa don "samar da kayayyaki waɗanda ke kiyaye rayuwa, gami da abinci, zare, kayayyakin gandun daji, amfanin gona na lambu, da ayyukan da suka shafi su". [4] Kamar yadda aka bayyana, ya haɗa da noma mai kyau, noma, kiwon dabbobi da gandun daji, amma a aikace galibi ba a cire noman lambu da gandun daji ba. [4] Haka kuma za a iya raba shi zuwa noma na tsirrai, wanda ya shafi noman shuke-shuke masu amfani, [5] da noma na dabbobi, da samar da dabbobin noma.

Duk da cewa noma yawanci yana nufin ayyukan ɗan adam, wasu nau'ikan halittu sun shafe shekaru miliyan 60 suna noma amfanin gona, kamar wasu tururuwa (duba noma a cikin tururuwa ), [6] tururuwa da ƙwaro . [7]

Tarihi

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Asalin

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Ci gaban noma ya ba da damar yawan mutane su girma sau da yawa fiye da yadda za a iya ci gaba da farauta da tarawa.[8] Aikin noma ya fara ne da kansa a sassa daban-daban na duniya, kuma ya haɗa da nau'o'i daban-daban, a cikin akalla cibiyoyin asali guda 11.[9][10] An tattara hatsi na daji kuma an ci shi daga akalla shekaru 105,000 da suka gabata. A cikin Paleolithic Levant, shekaru 23,000 da suka gabata, an lura da noman hatsi na emmer, sha'ir, da oats a kusa da teku na Galili. [11][12] An yi amfani da shinkafa a kasar Sin tsakanin 11,500 da 6200 BC tare da farkon sanannun noma daga 5700 BC, sannan mung, soya da azuki wake.[13]   An kiwon tumaki a Mesopotamiya tsakanin shekaru 13,000 da 11,000 da suka gabata. An yi kiwon shanu daga aurochs na daji a yankunan Turkiyya da Pakistan na zamani kimanin shekaru 10,500 da suka gabata.[14] Samar da alade ya fito ne a Eurasia, gami da Turai, Gabashin Asiya da Kudu maso Yammacin Asiya, inda aka fara yin amfani da Alade na daji kimanin shekaru 10,500 da suka gabata.[15][16] A cikin Andes na Kudancin Amurka, an yi amfani da dankali tsakanin shekaru 10,000 zuwa 7,000 da suka gabata, tare da wake, coca, llamas, alpacas, da aladu. An yi amfani da sukari da wasu kayan lambu a New Guinea kimanin shekaru 9,000 da suka gabata. An yi amfani da Sorghum a yankin Sahel na Afirka shekaru 7,000 da suka gabata. An yi amfani da auduga a Peru da shekaru 5,600 da suka gabata, kuma an yi amfani da shi da kansa a Eurasia. A Mesoamerica, an haifi teosinte na daji a cikin masara (masara) daga shekaru 10,000 zuwa 6,000 da suka gabata.[17][18] An yi amfani da doki a cikin Eurasian Steppes a kusa da 3500 BC.[19]  Masana sun ba da ra'ayoyi da yawa don bayyana asalin tarihi na noma. Nazarin sauyawa daga mafarauta-mai tarawa zuwa al'ummomin noma sun nuna farkon lokacin karuwa da karuwar zama; misalai sune Al'adun Natufian a Levant, da farkon Neolithic na kasar Sin a kasar Sin. Sa'an nan kuma, an fara dasa shuke-shuke na daji da aka girbe a baya, kuma a hankali an yi amfani da su.[20]

Al'adu

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Taswirar duniya da ke nuna kimanin cibiyoyin asalin aikin gona da yaduwarsa a cikin prehistory.[21] Nazarin DNA ya nuna cewa an gabatar da aikin gona a Turai ta hanyar fadada Manoma na farko daga Anatolia kimanin shekaru 9,000 da suka gabata.

A Eurasia, Sumerians sun fara zama a ƙauyuka daga kimanin 8000 BC, suna dogaro da kogin Tigris da Yufiretis da tsarin tashar ruwa don ban ruwa.  Shuke-shuke sun bayyana a cikin hotuna a kusa da 3000 BC; shuke-shuka a kusa da 2300 BC.   Manoma suna shuka alkama, sha'ir, kayan lambu kamar lentils da albasa, da 'ya'yan itatuwa ciki har da kwanakin, inabi, da ɓaure.[22] Aikin noma na tsohuwar Masar ya dogara da Kogin Nilu da ambaliyar yanayi. Aikin noma ya fara ne a lokacin predynastic a ƙarshen Paleolithic, bayan 10,000 BC.  Amfanin gona na abinci shine hatsi kamar alkama da sha'ir, tare da amfanin gona na masana'antu kamar flax da papyrus.[23] A Indiya, alkama, sha'ir da jujube an yi amfani da su a shekara ta 9000 BC, ba da daɗewa ba tumaki da awaki suka biyo baya.[24]  An yi kiwon shanu, tumaki da awaki a al'adun Mehrgarh daga 8000-6000 BC.[25][26] An shuka auduga a karni na 5th-4th BC.[27] Shaidar archaeological ta nuna noma da dabba ta jawo daga 2500 BC a cikin wayewar Indus Valley.[28] 

KA kasar Sin, daga karni na 5 BC, akwai tsarin hatsi na kasa da kuma noma siliki. An yi amfani da ma'adinan hatsi masu amfani da ruwa a ƙarni na 1 BC, sannan kuma ban ruwa. A ƙarshen ƙarni na 2, an haɓaka shinge mai nauyi tare da shinge na ƙarfe da allon gyare-gyare. [29] Wadannan sun bazu zuwa yamma a fadin Eurasia. An yi amfani da shinkafa ta Asiya shekaru 8,200-13,500 da suka gabata - dangane da ƙididdigar agogon kwayoyin da aka yi amfani da shi - a kan Kogin Pearl a kudancin China tare da asalin kwayar halitta guda ɗaya daga shinkafa Oryza rufipogon.[30][31] A Girka da Roma, manyan hatsi sune alkama, emmer, da sha'ir, tare da kayan lambu ciki har da wake, wake, da zaitun. Ana kiyaye tumaki da awaki galibi don kayan madara.[32]

Yanayin noma na girbi, kantin hatsi, girbi tare da sikelin, tonowa, yankan itace da noma daga tsohuwar Misira. Kabarin Nakht, ƙarni na 15 BC

A cikin Amurka, amfanin gona da aka yi amfani da su a Mesoamerica (ban da teosinte) sun haɗa da squash, wake, da koko. Mayo Chinchipe na saman Amazon ne ya yi amfani da koko a kusa da 3000 BC.  Wataƙila an yi amfani da turkey a Mexico ko Kudu maso Yammacin Amurka.[33] Aztecs sun haɓaka tsarin ban ruwa, sun kafa tuddai masu tasowa, sun shayar da ƙasarsu, kuma sun haɓaka chinampas ko tsibirai na wucin gadi. Maya sun yi amfani da tashar ruwa mai zurfi da kuma tsarin filin da aka ɗaga don noma daga 400 BC. [34][35][36]  A Kudancin Amurka aikin gona na iya fara ne game da 9000 BC tare da domestication na squash (Cucurbita) da sauran tsire-tsire.[37]  An yi amfani da Coca a cikin Andes, Tumar yadda man shanu, tumatir, taba, da pineapple.[38] An yi amfani da auduga a Peru a shekara ta 3600 BC.  Dabbobi ciki har da llamas, alpacas, da aladu na Guinea an yi musu gida a can. A Arewacin Amurka, 'yan asalin Gabas sun shuka amfanin gona kamar sunflower, taba, squash da Chenopodium.[39] An girbe abinci na daji ciki har da Shinkafa ta daji da sukari na maple. strawberry na gida shine nau'in nau'in Chilean da nau'in Arewacin Amurka, wanda aka haɓaka ta hanyar kiwo a Turai da Arewacin Amurka.[40] 'Yan asalin Kudu maso Yamma da Arewa maso Yammacin Pacific suna yin aikin lambu da aikin gona. 'Yan asalin sun sarrafa wuta a kan sikelin yanki don ƙirƙirar yanayin muhalli na wuta mai ƙarancin ƙarfi wanda ya ci gaba da aikin gona mai ƙaranci a cikin juyawa mai sauƙi; wani nau'in "wild" permaculture. An haɓaka tsarin shuka aboki da ake kira 'Yan uwa mata Uku a Arewacin Amurka. Shuke-shuke guda uku sune squash na hunturu, masara, da wake masu hawa.[41]

'Yan asalin Australiya, tun da daɗewa ana zaton sun kasance masu mafarauta da tarawa, suna yin ƙonewa ta tsari, mai yiwuwa don haɓaka yawan amfanin gona a cikin aikin gona.[42] Masana sun nuna cewa mafarauta-masu tarawa suna buƙatar yanayi mai amfani don tallafawa tattarawa ba tare da noma ba. Saboda gandun daji na New Guinea suna da ƙananan tsire-tsire na abinci, mutane na farko na iya amfani da "ƙonewa mai zaɓaɓɓu" don ƙara yawan amfanin itatuwan 'ya'yan itace na karuka na daji don tallafawa hanyar rayuwa mai farauta da tarawa.[43]

Gunditjmara da sauran kungiyoyi sun haɓaka aikin noma da tsarin kama kifi daga kimanin shekaru 5,000 da suka gabata.[44] Akwai shaidar 'ƙaruwa' a duk nahiyar a wannan lokacin. A yankuna biyu na Ostiraliya, tsakiyar yammacin gabar teku da gabashin tsakiya, manoma na farko sun noma yams, millet na asali, da albasa na daji, mai yiwuwa a cikin mazauna dindindin.[45]

Juyin Juya Halin

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Agricultural calendar, c. 1470, from a manuscript of Pietro de Crescenzi

A tsakiyar zamanai, idan aka kwatanta da zamanin Roman, noma a Yammacin Turai ya fi mayar da hankali kan wadatar kai. Yawan manoma a karkashin feudalism yawanci an tsara su a cikin manors wanda ya kunshi daruruwan ko fiye da kadada na ƙasa wanda shugaba na manor tare da cocin Roman Katolika da firist ke jagoranta.

Godiya ga musayar tare da Al-Andalus inda juyin juya halin noma na Larabawa ke gudana, aikin gona na Turai ya canza, tare da ingantaccen dabarun da yaduwar shuke-shuke, gami da gabatar da sukari, shinkafa, auduga da itatuwan 'ya'yan itace (kamar orange). [46]

Bayan 1492, musayar Columbian ta kawo amfanin gona na Sabon Duniya kamar masara, dankali, tumatir, dankali mai zaki, da manioc zuwa Turai, da kuma amfanin gona da aka yi a Tsohon Duniya kamar alkama, sha'ir, shinkafa, da turnips, da dabbobi (ciki har da dawakai, shanu, tumaki da awaki) zuwa Amurka.[47]

Ruwa, juyawa na amfanin gona, da taki sun ci gaba daga karni na 17 tare da juyin juya halin noma na Burtaniya, wanda ya ba da damar yawan jama'ar duniya su karu sosai. Tun daga shekara ta 1900, noma a kasashe masu tasowa, kuma zuwa ƙarami a kasashe mai tasowa, ya ga karuwar yawan aiki yayin da inji ya maye gurbin aikin ɗan adam, kuma ya taimaka da taki na roba, magungunan kashe kwari, da kuma zaɓaɓɓen kiwo. Hanyar Haber-Bosch ta ba da damar hada ammonium nitrate taki a kan sikelin masana'antu, yana ƙara yawan amfanin gona da kuma ci gaba da karuwa a cikin yawan jama'ar duniya.[48][49]

Nau'o'in

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Garken Reindeer sun zama tushen aikin gona na kiwo ga mutane da yawa na Arctic da Subarctic.

  Makiyaya sun haɗa da sarrafa dabbobi na gida. A cikin makiyaya, ana motsa garken dabbobi daga wuri zuwa wuri don neman makiyaya, abinci, da ruwa. Ana yin irin wannan noma a yankunan da ba su da ruwa da kuma yankunan da ke cikin Sahara, Asiya ta Tsakiya da wasu sassan Indiya.

Yaduwar turare da hannu a Zambia

A cikin sauya noma, an share wani karamin yanki na gandun daji ta hanyar yankewa da ƙone bishiyoyi. Ana amfani da ƙasar da aka share don shuka amfanin gona na 'yan shekaru har sai ƙasa ta zama mai ƙwarewa, kuma an watsar da yankin. An zaɓi wani yanki na ƙasa kuma an sake maimaita wannan tsari. Irin wannan aikin gona ana yin sa ne galibi a yankunan da ke da ruwan sama mai yawa inda gandun daji ke sake farfadowa da sauri. Ana amfani da wannan aikin a Arewa maso gabashin Indiya, kudu maso gabashin Asiya, da kuma Amazon Basin . [50]

Ana yin aikin gona don biyan bukatun iyali ko na gida kadai, tare da ɗan kaɗan don sufuri a wasu wurare. Ana yin sa sosai a Monsoon Asiya da Kudu maso Gabashin Asiya. Kimanin manoma biliyan 2.5 sun yi aiki a cikin 2018, suna noma kusan kashi 60% na ƙasar noma.[51] 

Aikin noma mai zurfi shine noma don kara yawan aiki, tare da ƙananan raguwa da kuma amfani da abubuwan shigarwa (ruwa, taki, maganin kashe ƙwayoyin cuta da sarrafa kansa). Ana yin shi galibi a kasashe masu tasowa.[52][53]

Aikin noma na zamani

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Samfuri:Owidslider

Matsayi

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Daidaitawa ga aikin gona na ƙasa a duniya (Ma'aikatar Aikin Gona ta Amurka, 1998)
Hanyoyin aiki na baya-bayan nan a aikin gona (ciki har da gandun daji da kamun kifi) ta yankin

Daga karni na ashirin zuwa gaba, noma mai zurfi ya kara yawan amfanin gona. Ya maye gurbin taki na roba da magungunan kashe kwari don aiki, amma ya haifar da karuwar gurɓataccen ruwa, kuma sau da yawa ya haɗa da tallafin gona. Rashin lalacewar ƙasa da cututtuka irin su tsatsa sune manyan damuwa a duniya; [54] kimanin kashi 40% na ƙasar noma ta duniya ta lalace sosai. Aikin noma na zamani ya tayar ko ya gamu da batutuwan muhalli, siyasa, da tattalin arziki ciki har da gurɓataccen ruwa, man fetur, kwayoyin halitta, haraji da tallafin gona, wanda ke haifar da wasu hanyoyin da suka dace kamar Motsi na kwayoyin halitta.[55] Ayyukan noma marasa dorewa a Arewacin Amurka sun haifar da Dust Bowl na shekarun 1930.[56] A cikin 'yan shekarun nan an sami mummunar martani game da Tasirin muhalli na aikin gona na al'ada, wanda ya haifar da ƙungiyoyin aikin gona masu ɗorewa, masu sabuntawa, da masu ɗorewar aiki.[57][58] Ɗaya daga cikin manyan dakarun da ke bayan wannan motsi shine Tarayyar Turai, wanda ya fara tabbatar da abinci na kwayoyin halitta a cikin 1991 kuma ya fara sake fasalin Manufofin Aikin Gona na yau da kullun (CAP) a cikin 2005 don fitar da tallafin gona da ke da alaƙa da kayan masarufi, wanda aka fi sani da rarraba.[59] Ci gaban aikin gona na kwayoyin halitta ya sabunta bincike a cikin wasu fasahohi kamar hadin gwiwar kula da kwari, zaɓaɓɓen kiwo, da aikin gona mai sarrafa muhalli. Akwai damuwa game da ƙananan amfanin gona da ke da alaƙa da aikin noma na kwayoyin halitta da tasirinsa akan tsaron abinci na duniya.[60] Ci gaban fasaha na baya-bayan nan sun haɗa da Abinci mai canza kwayar halitta.

A cikin shekaru 60 tsakanin 1964 da 2023, an sami mafi yawan karuwar samar da aikin gona ta hanyar karuwa, yayin da fadada ƙasar noma ta iyakance zuwa 8% kawai.

A cikin karni na ashirin da daya, tsakanin 2001 da 2023, yankin noma na duniya ya ragu da hekta miliyan 78 (Mha) (-2%), tare da yankin amfanin gona yana ƙaruwa da 78 Mha da kuma ciyawa na dindindin da makiyaya suna raguwa da 151 Mha. Wadannan canje-canje suna nuna bambance-bambance na yanki. Afirka ta kudu da Sahara ta ga fadada gonar amfanin gona na 69 Mha tare da asarar gandun daji 72 Mha, yayin da Latin Amurka ta ga 25 Mha na ci gaban amfanin gona tare da 85 Mha na asarar yankin gandun daji. Yaduwar aikin gona ya kasance babban abin da ke haifar da sare daji a duniya, wanda ya kai kusan kashi 90% na asarar gandun daji. A cikin wannan karni, wani muhimmin al'amari da za a yi la'akari da shi shine cewa kimanin 3.6 Mha na gonaki ana watsar da su a kowace shekara, tare da lalacewar ƙasa mai yiwuwa yana taka muhimmiyar rawa a cikin waɗannan asarar.

Ci gaban aikin gona na kasar Sin a shekarar 2015 US $ tun 1961

A shekara ta 2015, aikin gona na kasar Sin ya kasance mafi girma a duniya, sannan Tarayyar Turai, Indiya da Amurka suka biyo baya.[61] Masana tattalin arziki suna auna jimlar yawan aiki gona, bisa ga abin da aikin gona a Amurka ya kusan sau 1.7 ya fi yawan amfanin gona fiye da yadda yake a shekarar 1948.[62] Samun amfanin gona na dogon lokaci ya fi girma lokacin da bincike da ci gaba ke fuskantar 'ya'yan itatuwa, kayan lambu da kayan lambu.

Aikin noma ya dauki ma'aikata miliyan 873 a cikin 2021, ko kuma kashi 27% na ma'aikata na duniya, miliyan 916 a cikin 2023, idan aka kwatanta da miliyan 1 027 (ko 40%) a cikin 2000. Kashi na noma a cikin GDP na duniya ya kasance mai ɗorewa a kusan 4% tun daga 2000-2023.

Duk da karuwar samar da noma da yawan aiki, tsakanin mutane miliyan 702 da 828 yunwa ta shafa a cikin 2021. Rashin tsaro na abinci mai gina jiki da rashin abinci mai gina gina jiki na iya zama sakamakon rikici, matsanancin yanayi da bambancin yanayi da sauye-sauyen tattalin arziki.[63] Hakanan yana iya haifar da halaye na tsarin ƙasa kamar matsayin samun kudin shiga da albarkatun ƙasa da kuma tattalin arzikin siyasa.[63]

Amfani da ƙwayoyin cuta a aikin gona ya karu da kashi 62% tsakanin 2000 da 2021, tare da Amurka da ke lissafin rabin amfani a cikin 2021.

Asusun Ci gaban Aikin Gona na Duniya ya nuna cewa karuwar aikin gona na iya zama wani ɓangare na mafita ga damuwa game da Farashin abinci da tsaron abinci gaba ɗaya, saboda kwarewar da ta dace da Vietnam.[64]

Bala'o'i sun haifar da kimanin dala tiriliyan 3.26 a cikin asarar noma sama da shekaru 33 (1991-2023), matsakaicin dala biliyan 99 a kowace shekara, tare da amfanin gona da ke ɗauke da nauyin da ya fi nauyi a tan biliyan 4.6 da suka ɓace, sannan 'ya'yan itatuwa da kayan lambu (2.8 biliyan), da kuma nama da madara sun rasa tan miliyan 900.

Ma'aikata

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Ayyukan duniya a cikin noma, gandun daji da kamun kifi a cikin 2023

Aikin noma yana samar da kusan kashi ɗaya cikin huɗu na duk ayyukan duniya, fiye da rabi a yankin Sahara na Afirka kuma kusan kashi 60 cikin dari a ƙasashe masu karamin karfi.[65] Yayinda kasashe ke tasowa, wasu ayyukan tarihi sun janye ma'aikata daga aikin gona, kuma sababbin abubuwan ceton ma'aikata suna kara yawan aikin gona ta hanyar rage bukatun ma'aikata a kowane sashi na fitarwa.[66][67][68] A tsawon lokaci, haɗuwa da samar da ma'aikata da yanayin buƙatun ma'aikata sun rage yawan mutanen da ke aiki a aikin gona.[69][70]

A kan ka'idar bangarori uku, yawan mutanen da ke aiki a aikin gona (bar mai wuya a kowane rukuni, kore) ya faɗi yayin da tattalin arziki ya zama mafi ci gaba.

A cikin karni na 16 a Turai, tsakanin 55 da 75% na yawan jama'a sun shiga aikin gona; a karni na 19, wannan ya sauka zuwa tsakanin 35 da 65%.[71] A cikin waɗannan ƙasashe a yau, adadi bai kai kashi 10 cikin 100 ba.[72] A farkon karni na 21, wasu mutane biliyan daya, ko kuma sama da 1/3 na ma'aikatan da ke akwai, sun yi aiki a aikin gona. Wannan ya zama kusan kashi 70% na aikin yara na duniya, kuma a kasashe da yawa ya zama mafi yawan mata na kowane masana'antu.[73] Sashin sabis ɗin ya mamaye bangaren noma a matsayin babban ma'aikaci na duniya a cikin shekara ta 2007.

A kasashe masu tasowa da yawa, baƙi suna taimakawa wajen cika karancin ma'aikata a cikin ayyukan noma masu mahimmanci waɗanda ke da wuyar sarrafawa. Ma'aikatan gona na kasashen waje daga mafi yawan Gabashin Turai, Arewacin Afirka da Kudancin Asiya sun kasance kusan kashi ɗaya bisa uku na ma'aikatan gona da aka biya albashi a Spain, Italiya, Girka da Portugal a cikin 2013 . [74][75] A Amurka, fiye da rabin dukkan ma'aikatan gona da aka hayar (kimanin ma'aikata 450,000) baƙi ne a cikin 2019, kodayake yawan sabbin baƙi da suka isa ƙasar don yin aiki a aikin gona ya ragu da kashi 75 cikin dari a cikin 'yan shekarun nan kuma karuwar albashi ya nuna wannan ya haifar da babban karancin ma'aikata a gonakin Amurka.[76][77]

Mata a cikin noma

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

A duk faɗin duniya, mata sun kasance babban ɓangare na yawan mutanen da ke aiki a aikin gona. Wannan rabon yana girma a duk yankuna masu tasowa sai dai Gabas da Kudu maso Gabashin Asiya inda mata suka riga sun kasance kusan kashi 50 cikin 100 na ma'aikatan gona.[78] Mata sun kai kashi 47 cikin 100 na ma'aikatan gona a yankin Sahara na Afirka, adadin da bai canza sosai ba a cikin 'yan shekarun da suka gabata.[78] Koyaya, Kungiyar Abinci da Aikin Gona ta Majalisar Dinkin Duniya (FAO) ta nuna cewa matsayin da alhakin mata a aikin gona na iya canzawa - alal misali, daga aikin gona zuwa aikin albashi, da kuma ba da gudummawa ga membobin gida ga masu samar da farko a cikin mahallin maza-daga-momi.[78]

Gabaɗaya, mata suna da babban rabo na aikin gona a ƙananan matakan ci gaban tattalin arziki, kamar yadda rashin isasshen ilimi, iyakance damar samun ababen more rayuwa da kasuwanni, babban nauyin aiki da ba a biya ba da kuma damar yin aiki a yankunan karkara a waje da aikin gona yana iyakance yiwuwar mata don aikin gona.

Mata da ke aiki a cikin aikin gona suna yin hakan a cikin yanayi mara kyau. Suna mai da hankali ne a cikin ƙasashe mafi talauci, inda ba a samun wasu hanyoyin rayuwa ba, kuma suna kula da tsananin aikinsu a yanayin yanayin yanayi da ke haifar da rikice-rikice. Mata ba su da damar shiga a matsayin 'yan kasuwa da manoma masu zaman kansu kuma suna da hannu a samar da amfanin gona mai sauki.

Rashin jinsi a cikin yawan amfanin ƙasa tsakanin gonakin da aka gudanar da mata da maza na girman iri ɗaya shine kashi 24. A matsakaici, mata suna samun kashi 18.4 cikin dari ƙasa da maza a aikin albashi a aikin gona; wannan yana nufin cewa mata suna karɓar cents 82 ga kowane dala da maza suka samu. Ci gaba ya kasance mai jinkiri wajen rufe gibin da mata ke samu ga ban ruwa da kuma mallakar dabbobi, ma.

Mata a cikin aikin gona har yanzu suna da ƙarancin damar fiye da maza ga shigarwa, gami da ingantaccen tsaba, taki da kayan aikin inji. A kan bayanin kula mai kyau, bambancin jinsi a cikin samun damar intanet ta hannu a cikin ƙasashe masu karamin karfi da matsakaici ya fadi daga kashi 25 zuwa kashi 16 cikin dari tsakanin 2017 da 2021, kuma bambancin jinsi na samun damar asusun banki ya ragu daga kashi 9 zuwa 6. Mata suna iya zama kamar maza don karɓar sabbin fasahohi lokacin da aka sanya abubuwan da suka dace kuma suna da daidaitattun damar samun ƙarin albarkatu.

Tsaro

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Rollover kariya mashaya da aka gyara zuwa tsakiyar karni na 20 Fordson tractorTractor na Fordson

Aikin noma, musamman noma, ya kasance masana'antu mai haɗari, kuma manoma a duk duniya sun kasance cikin haɗarin raunin da ya shafi aiki, cututtukan huhu, asarar ji da aka haifar da hayaniya, cututsin fata, da kuma wasu cututtukani da suka shafi amfani da sinadarai da kuma hasken rana mai tsawo. A gonaki masu masana'antu, raunin sau da yawa ya haɗa da amfani da injunan noma, kuma sanannen dalilin mummunan raunin noma a kasashe masu tasowa shine fashewar tractor.[79] Magungunan ƙwayoyin cuta da sauran sunadarai da aka yi amfani da su a aikin gona na iya zama haɗari ga lafiyar ma'aikata, kuma ma'aikatan da ke fuskantar magungunan ƙwari na iya fuskantar rashin lafiya ko samun yara tare da lahani na haihuwa.[80] A matsayin masana'antar da iyalai ke yawan aiki kuma suna zaune a gonar kanta, dukkan iyalai na iya kasancewa cikin haɗarin rauni, rashin lafiya, da mutuwa.[81] Shekaru 0-6 na iya zama yawan mutanen da ke fama da rauni a aikin gona; abubuwan da ke haifar da mummunan rauni tsakanin matasa ma'aikatan gona sun haɗa da nutsewa, injuna da haɗarin mota, gami da motoci masu tasowa. [81][82][83] Bayanan mutuwar aiki daga shekaru goma da suka gabata sun nuna cewa, yayin kallon dukkan masana'antu, noma yana da yawan mutuwar da suka shafi aiki ga matasa. A cikin wannan masana'antar, matasa tsakanin shekaru 10 zuwa 15 sun sha wahala mafi yawan raunin da ba na mutuwa ba.[84] Duk da yake noma yana da haɗari, binciken ya kalli gaskiyar cewa akwai fa'idodi da yawa ga girma da zama a gona.[85]

Kungiyar Ma'aikata ta Duniya ta dauki aikin gona "ɗaya daga cikin mafi haɗari a duk bangarorin tattalin arziki".[73] Ya kiyasta cewa yawan mutanen da suka mutu a kowace shekara tsakanin ma'aikatan gona ya kai akalla 170,000, sau biyu na matsakaicin sauran ayyukan. Bugu da kari, abubuwan da suka faru na mutuwa, rauni da rashin lafiya da suka shafi ayyukan noma galibi ba a bayar da rahoto ba.[86] Kungiyar ta haɓaka Yarjejeniyar Tsaro da Lafiya a Aikin Gona, 2001, wanda ke rufe kewayon haɗari a cikin aikin noma, rigakafin waɗannan haɗari da rawar da mutane da kungiyoyin da ke cikin aikin gona ya kamata su taka.[73]

A Amurka, Cibiyar Kula da Tsaro da Lafiya ta Kasa ta gano aikin gona a matsayin bangaren masana'antu na farko a cikin Shirin Bincike na Kasa don ganowa da samar da dabarun shiga tsakani don batutuwan kiwon lafiya da tsaro na sana'a.[87][88] A cikin Tarayyar Turai, Hukumar Tsaro da Lafiya a Aiki ta ba da jagororin kan aiwatar da umarnin kiwon lafiya da aminci a aikin gona, kiwon dabbobi, aikin lambu, da gandun daji.[89] Majalisar Kula da Lafiya da Lafiya ta Aikin Gona ta Amurka (ASHCA) tana kuma gudanar da taron koli na shekara-shekara don tattauna tsaro.[90]

Tasirin muhalli

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Yaduwa sama da hekta biliyan 4.8 a cikin 2025 - daidai da kashi ɗaya bisa uku na ƙasar duniya - noma yana da tasiri mafi girma a kan ƙasa da albarkatun ruwa idan aka kwatanta da kowane bangare na tattalin arziki. Matsi a kan ƙasa, ƙasa da albarkatun ruwa sun lalata aikin da kuma yiwuwar aikin gona a nan gaba, wanda ya haifar da ƙarin asarar ƙasa mai amfani da rage wadatar ruwa don noma da sauran nau'ikan samar da aikin gona. Yaduwar aikin gona yana haifar da sare daji kuma yana daya daga cikin manyan abubuwan da ke haifar da lalacewar yanayin halittu masu wadataccen carbon kamar su peatlands. Kimanin kashi 64% na ƙasar noma yana cikin haɗarin gurɓataccen ƙwayoyin cuta, wanda ke lalata bambancin halittu ta hanyar lalata masu shuka, yana cutar da microbiota na ƙasa kuma yana sa tsarin abinci na gona ya zama ƙasa da juriya ga kwari, pathogens da canjin yanayi. Kashi 72% na janyewar ruwan sha na duniya, adadi da aka yi hasashen zai kara tashi a nan gaba, aikin gona yana ba da gudummawa kuma yana ƙara shafar karancin ruwa. Yawan amfani da ruwan kasa da ruwan teku a cikin ruwa mai zurfi ya yadu, tare da manyan abubuwan da ke tattare da tsaro na abinci.

Fitarwa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Samfuri:Owidslider

Kasashe mafi girma ta hanyar samar da aikin gona (a cikin sharuddan suna) bisa ga IMF da CIA World Factbook, a matakin mafi girma har zuwa 2018
Page Samfuri:Bar chart/styles.css has no content.Samfuri:Bar chart
Kasashe mafi girma ta hanyar samar da aikin gona bisa ga UNCTAD a farashin shekara ta 2005 da kuma farashin musayar, 2015 [61]
Page Samfuri:Bar chart/styles.css has no content.Samfuri:Bar chart

Manazarta

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
  1. 1 2 3 4 Lowder, Sarah K.; Sánchez, Marco V.; Bertini, Raffaele (1 June 2021). "Which farms feed the world and has farmland become more concentrated?". World Development (in Turanci). 142. Bibcode:2021WoDev.14205455L. doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2021.105455. ISSN 0305-750X. S2CID 233553897 Check |s2cid= value (help).
  2. ↑ "Discover Natural Fibres Initiative – DNFI.org". dnfi.org. Archived from the original on 10 April 2023. Retrieved 3 February 2023.
  3. ↑ "FAOSTAT. Forestry Production and Trade". Food and Agriculture Organization. Archived from the original on 4 January 2024. Retrieved 12 July 2021.
  4. 1 2 "Definition of Agriculture". State of Maine. Archived from the original on 23 March 2012. Retrieved 6 May 2013.
  5. ↑ Stevenson, G. C. (1971). "Plant Agriculture Selected and introduced by Janick Jules and Others San Francisco: Freeman (1970), pp. 246, £2.10". Experimental Agriculture. Cambridge University Press (CUP). 7 (4): 363. doi:10.1017/s0014479700023371. ISSN 0014-4797. S2CID 85571333.
  6. ↑ Li, Hongjie; Sosa Calvo, Jeffrey; Horn, Heidi A.; Pupo, Mônica T.; Clardy, Jon; Rabeling, Cristian; Schultz, Ted R.; Currie, Cameron R. (2018). "Convergent evolution of complex structures for ant–bacterial defensive symbiosis in fungus-farming ants". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 115 (42): 10725. Bibcode:2018PNAS..11510720L. doi:10.1073/pnas.1809332115. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 6196509. PMID 30282739.
  7. ↑ Mueller, Ulrich G.; Gerardo, Nicole M.; Aanen, Duur K.; Six, Diana L.; Schultz, Ted R. (December 2005). "The Evolution of Agriculture in Insects". Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics. 36: 563–595. doi:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.36.102003.152626.
  8. ↑ Bocquet-Appel, Jean-Pierre (29 July 2011). "When the World's Population Took Off: The Springboard of the Neolithic Demographic Transition". Science. 333 (6042): 560–561. Bibcode:2011Sci...333..560B. doi:10.1126/science.1208880. PMID 21798934. S2CID 29655920.
  9. ↑ Stephens, Lucas; Fuller, Dorian; Boivin, Nicole; Rick, Torben; Gauthier, Nicolas; Kay, Andrea; Marwick, Ben; Armstrong, Chelsey Geralda; Barton, C. Michael (30 August 2019). "Archaeological assessment reveals Earth's early transformation through land use". Science. 365 (6456): 897–902. Bibcode:2019Sci...365..897S. doi:10.1126/science.aax1192. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 31467217. S2CID 201674203. |hdl-access= requires |hdl= (help)
  10. ↑ Larson, G.; Piperno, D. R.; Allaby, R. G.; Purugganan, M. D.; Andersson, L.; Arroyo-Kalin, M.; Barton, L.; Climer Vigueira, C.; Denham, T.; Dobney, K.; Doust, A. N.; Gepts, P.; Gilbert, M. T. P.; Gremillion, K. J.; Lucas, L. (2014). "Current perspectives and the future of domestication studies". PNAS. 111 (17): 6139–6146. Bibcode:2014PNAS..111.6139L. doi:10.1073/pnas.1323964111. PMC 4035915. PMID 24757054.
  11. ↑ Snir, Ainit; Nadel, Dani; Groman-Yaroslavski, Iris; Melamed, Yoel; Sternberg, Marcelo; Bar-Yosef, Ofer; Weiss, Ehud (22 July 2015). "The Origin of Cultivation and Proto-Weeds, Long Before Neolithic Farming". PLOS One (in Turanci). 10 (7). Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1031422S. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0131422. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 4511808. PMID 26200895.
  12. ↑ "First evidence of farming in Mideast 23,000 years ago: Evidence of earliest small-scale agricultural cultivation". ScienceDaily (in Turanci). Archived from the original on 23 April 2022. Retrieved 23 April 2022.
  13. ↑ Zong, Y.; When, Z.; Innes, J. B.; Chen, C.; Wang, Z.; Wang, H. (2007). "Fire and flood management of coastal swamp enabled first rice paddy cultivation in east China". Nature. 449 (7161): 459–462. Bibcode:2007Natur.449..459Z. doi:10.1038/nature06135. PMID 17898767. S2CID 4426729.
  14. ↑ McTavish, E. J.; Decker, J. E.; Schnabel, R. D.; Taylor, J. F.; Hillis, D. M. (2013). "New World cattle show ancestry from multiple independent domestication events". PNAS. 110 (15): E1398–1406. Bibcode:2013PNAS..110E1398M. doi:10.1073/pnas.1303367110. PMC 3625352. PMID 23530234.
  15. ↑ Larson, Greger; Dobney, Keith; Albarella, Umberto; Fang, Meiying; Matisoo-Smith, Elizabeth; Robins, Judith; Lowden, Stewart; Finlayson, Heather; Brand, Tina (11 March 2005). "Worldwide Phylogeography of Wild Boar Reveals Multiple Centers of Pig Domestication". Science. 307 (5715): 1618–1621. Bibcode:2005Sci...307.1618L. doi:10.1126/science.1106927. PMID 15761152. S2CID 39923483.
  16. ↑ Larson, Greger; Albarella, Umberto; Dobney, Keith; Rowley-Conwy, Peter; Schibler, Jörg; Tresset, Anne; Vigne, Jean-Denis; Edwards, Ceiridwen J.; Schlumbaum, Angela (25 September 2007). "Ancient DNA, pig domestication, and the spread of the Neolithic into Europe". PNAS. 104 (39): 15276–15281. Bibcode:2007PNAS..10415276L. doi:10.1073/pnas.0703411104. PMC 1976408. PMID 17855556.
  17. ↑ "The Evolution of Corn". University of Utah HEALTH SCIENCES. Archived from the original on 13 July 2019. Retrieved 2 January 2016.
  18. ↑ Benz, B. F. (2001). "Archaeological evidence of teosinte domestication from Guilá Naquitz, Oaxaca". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 98 (4): 2104–2106. Bibcode:2001PNAS...98.2104B. doi:10.1073/pnas.98.4.2104. PMC 29389. PMID 11172083.
  19. ↑ Dance, Amber (4 May 2022). "The tale of the domesticated horse". Knowable Magazine. doi:10.1146/knowable-050422-1. Archived from the original on 29 September 2022. Retrieved 28 October 2022.
  20. ↑ Hillman, G. C. (1996) "Late Pleistocene changes in wild plant-foods available to hunter-gatherers of the northern Fertile Crescent: Possible preludes to cereal cultivation". In D. R. Harris (ed.) The Origins and Spread of Agriculture and Pastoralism in Eurasia, UCL Books, London, pp. 159–203. ISBN 9781857285383
  21. ↑ Diamond, J.; Bellwood, P. (2003). "Farmers and Their Languages: The First Expansions". Science. 300 (5619): 597–603. Bibcode:2003Sci...300..597D. doi:10.1126/science.1078208. PMID 12714734. S2CID 13350469.
  22. ↑ "Farming". British Museum. Archived from the original on 16 June 2016. Retrieved 15 June 2016.
  23. ↑ Janick, Jules. "Ancient Egyptian Agriculture and the Origins of Horticulture" (PDF). Acta Hort. 583: 23–39. Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 May 2013. Retrieved 1 April 2018.
  24. ↑ Gupta, Anil K. (2004). "Origin of agriculture and domestication of plants and animals linked to early Holocene climate amelioration" (PDF). Current Science. 87 (1): 59. JSTOR 24107979. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 January 2019. Retrieved 23 April 2019.
  25. ↑ Baber, Zaheer (1996). The Science of Empire: Scientific Knowledge, Civilization, and Colonial Rule in India. State University of New York Press. 19. ISBN 0-7914-2919-9.
  26. ↑ Harris, David R. and Gosden, C. (1996). The Origins and Spread of Agriculture and Pastoralism in Eurasia: Crops, Fields, Flocks And Herds. Routledge. p. 385. ISBN 1-85728-538-7.
  27. ↑ Stein, Burton (1998). A History of India. Blackwell Publishing. p. 47. ISBN 0-631-20546-2.
  28. ↑ Lal, R. (2001). "Thematic evolution of ISTRO: transition in scientific issues and research focus from 1955 to 2000". Soil and Tillage Research. 61 (1–2): 3–12. Bibcode:2001STilR..61....3L. doi:10.1016/S0167-1987(01)00184-2.
  29. ↑ Greenberger, Robert (2006) The Technology of Ancient China, Rosen Publishing Group. pp. 11–12. ISBN 1404205586
  30. ↑ Molina, J.; Sikora, M.; Garud, N.; Flowers, J. M.; Rubinstein, S.; Reynolds, A.; Huang, P.; Jackson, S.; Schaal, B. A.; Bustamante, C. D.; Boyko, A. R.; Purugganan, M. D. (2011). "Molecular evidence for a single evolutionary origin of domesticated rice". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 108 (20): 8351–8356. Bibcode:2011PNAS..108.8351M. doi:10.1073/pnas.1104686108. PMC 3101000. PMID 21536870.
  31. ↑ Huang, Xuehui; Kurata, Nori; Wei, Xinghua; Wang, Zi-Xuan; Wang, Ahong; Zhao, Qiang; Zhao, Yan; Liu, Kunyan; et al. (2012). "A map of rice genome variation reveals the origin of cultivated rice". Nature. 490 (7421): 497–501. Bibcode:2012Natur.490..497H. doi:10.1038/nature11532. PMC 7518720. PMID 23034647.
  32. ↑ Koester, Helmut (1995), History, Culture, and Religion of the Hellenistic Age, 2nd edition, Walter de Gruyter, pp. 76–77. ISBN 3-11-014693-2
  33. ↑ Speller, Camilla F.; et al. (2010). "Ancient mitochondrial DNA analysis reveals complexity of indigenous North American turkey domestication". PNAS. 107 (7): 2807–2812. Bibcode:2010PNAS..107.2807S. doi:10.1073/pnas.0909724107. PMC 2840336. PMID 20133614.
  34. ↑ Mascarelli, Amanda (5 November 2010). "Mayans converted wetlands to farmland". Nature. doi:10.1038/news.2010.587. Archived from the original on 23 April 2021. Retrieved 17 May 2013.
  35. ↑ Morgan, John (6 November 2013). "Invisible Artifacts: Uncovering Secrets of Ancient Maya Agriculture with Modern Soil Science". Soil Horizons. 53 (6): 3. doi:10.2136/sh2012-53-6-lf.
  36. ↑ Spooner, David M.; McLean, Karen; Ramsay, Gavin; Waugh, Robbie; Bryan, Glenn J. (2005). "A single domestication for potato based on multilocus amplified fragment length polymorphism genotyping". PNAS. 102 (41): 14694–14699. Bibcode:2005PNAS..10214694S. doi:10.1073/pnas.0507400102. PMC 1253605. PMID 16203994.
  37. ↑ Piperno, Dolores R. (2011). "The Origin of Plant Cultivation and Domestication in the New World Tropics: Pattern, Process, and New Developments". Current Anthropology. 52 (S-4): S453–S470. doi:10.1086/659998. S2CID 83061925. Archived from the original on 19 October 2021. Retrieved 16 November 2023.
  38. ↑ Cite error: Invalid tag; no text was provided for refs named "Murphy2011".
  39. ↑ Heiser, Carl B. Jr. (1992). "On possible sources of the tobacco of prehistoric Eastern North America". Current Anthropology. 33: 54–56. doi:10.1086/204032. S2CID 144433864.
  40. ↑ Hardigan, Michael A. "P0653: Domestication History of Strawberry: Population Bottlenecks and Restructuring of Genetic Diversity through Time". PAG - Plant and Animal Genome XXVI Conference (January 13–17, 2018). Plant & Animal Genome Conference XXVI 13–17 January 2018 San Diego, California. Archived from the original on 1 March 2018. Retrieved 28 February 2018.
  41. ↑ Landon, Amanda J. (2008). "The "How" of the Three Sisters: The Origins of Agriculture in Mesoamerica and the Human Niche". Nebraska Anthropologist: 110–124. Archived from the original on 21 September 2013. Retrieved 1 April 2018.
  42. ↑ Jones, R. (2012). "Fire-stick Farming". Fire Ecology. 8 (3): 3–8. Bibcode:2012FiEco...8c...3J. doi:10.1007/BF03400623.
  43. ↑ Rowley-Conwy, Peter; Layton, Robert (27 March 2011). "Foraging and farming as niche construction: stable and unstable adaptations". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 366 (1566): 849–862. doi:10.1098/rstb.2010.0307. ISSN 0962-8436. PMC 3048996. PMID 21320899.
  44. ↑ Williams, Elizabeth (1988). "Complex Hunter-Gatherers: A Late Holocene Example from Temperate Australia". Archaeopress Archaeology. 423.
  45. ↑ Empty citation (help)
  46. ↑ Watson, Andrew M. (1974). "The Arab Agricultural Revolution and Its Diffusion, 700–1100". The Journal of Economic History. 34 (1): 8–35. doi:10.1017/s0022050700079602. S2CID 154359726.
  47. ↑ Crosby, Alfred (December 2011). "The Columbian Exchange". The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History. Archived from the original on 3 July 2013. Retrieved 11 May 2013.
  48. ↑ Janick, Jules. "Agricultural Scientific Revolution: Mechanical" (PDF). Purdue University. Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 May 2013. Retrieved 24 May 2013.
  49. ↑ Reid, John F. (2011). "The Impact of Mechanization on Agriculture". The Bridge on Agriculture and Information Technology. 41. Archived from the original on 5 November 2013.
  50. ↑ "Shifting cultivation". Survival International. Archived from the original on 29 August 2016. Retrieved 28 August 2016.
  51. ↑ "Chinese project offers a brighter farming future". Editorial. Nature. 555 (7695): 141. 7 March 2018. Bibcode:2018Natur.555R.141.. doi:10.1038/d41586-018-02742-3. PMID 29517037.
  52. ↑ "Encyclopædia Britannica's definition of Intensive Agriculture". Archived from the original on 5 July 2006.
  53. ↑ "BBC School fact sheet on intensive farming". Archived from the original on 3 May 2007.
  54. ↑ "Wheat Stem Rust – UG99 (Race TTKSK)". FAO. Archived from the original on 7 January 2014. Retrieved 6 January 2014.
  55. ↑ "Ten worst famines of the 20th century". The Sydney Morning Herald. 15 August 2011. Archived from the original on 3 July 2014.
  56. ↑ Hobbs, Peter R; Sayre, Ken; Gupta, Raj (12 February 2008). "The role of conservation agriculture in sustainable agriculture". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 363 (1491): 543–555. doi:10.1098/rstb.2007.2169. PMC 2610169. PMID 17720669.
  57. ↑ Cite error: Invalid tag; no text was provided for refs named "motherjones1".
  58. ↑ Scheierling, Susanne M. (1995). "Overcoming agricultural pollution of water: the challenge of integrating agricultural and environmental policies in the European Union, Volume 1". The World Bank. Archived from the original on 5 June 2013. Retrieved 15 April 2013.
  59. ↑ "CAP Reform". European Commission. 2003. Archived from the original on 17 October 2010. Retrieved 15 April 2013.
  60. ↑ Knapp, Samuel; van der Heijden, Marcel G. A. (7 September 2018). "A global meta-analysis of yield stability in organic and conservation agriculture". Nature Communications. 9 (1): 3632. Bibcode:2018NatCo...9.3632K. doi:10.1038/s41467-018-05956-1. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 6128901. PMID 30194344.
  61. 1 2 "UNCTADstat – Table view". Archived from the original on 20 October 2017. Retrieved 26 November 2017.
  62. ↑ "Agricultural Productivity in the United States". USDA Economic Research Service. 5 July 2012. Archived from the original on 1 February 2013. Retrieved 22 April 2013.
  63. 1 2 Cite error: Invalid tag; no text was provided for refs named "Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations-2022".
  64. ↑ "Food prices: smallholder farmers can be part of the solution". International Fund for Agricultural Development. Archived from the original on 5 May 2013. Retrieved 24 April 2013.
  65. ↑ "World Bank. 2021. Employment in agriculture (% of total employment) (modeled ILO estimate)". The World Bank. Washington, D.C. 2021. Archived from the original on 7 October 2019. Retrieved 12 May 2021.
  66. ↑ Michaels, Guy; Rauch, Ferdinand; Redding, Stephen J. (2012). "Urbanization and Structural Transformation". The Quarterly Journal of Economics. 127 (2): 535–586. doi:10.1093/qje/qjs003. ISSN 0033-5533. JSTOR 23251993.
  67. ↑ Gollin, Douglas; Parente, Stephen; Rogerson, Richard (2002). "The Role of Agriculture in Development". The American Economic Review. 92 (2): 160–164. doi:10.1257/000282802320189177. ISSN 0002-8282. JSTOR 3083394.
  68. ↑ Lewis, W. Arthur (1954). "Economic Development with Unlimited Supplies of Labour". The Manchester School. 22 (2): 139–191. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9957.1954.tb00021.x. ISSN 1463-6786.
  69. ↑ "FAOSTAT: Employment Indicators: Agriculture". FAO. Rome. 2022. Archived from the original on 14 November 2021. Retrieved 6 February 2022.
  70. ↑ "Employment in agriculture (% of total employment) (modeled ILO estimate)". data.worldbank.org. Archived from the original on 7 October 2019. Retrieved 14 March 2023.
  71. ↑ Allen, Robert C. "Economic structure and agricultural productivity in Europe, 1300–1800" (PDF). European Review of Economic History. 3: 1–25. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 October 2014.
  72. ↑ "Labor Force – By Occupation". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original on 22 May 2014. Retrieved 4 May 2013.
  73. 1 2 3 "Safety and health in agriculture". International Labour Organization. 21 March 2011. Archived from the original on 18 March 2018. Retrieved 1 April 2018.
  74. ↑ Kasimis, Charalambos (1 October 2005). "Migrants in the Rural Economies of Greece and Southern Europe". migrationpolicy.org. Archived from the original on 6 February 2023. Retrieved 6 February 2023.
  75. ↑ Fonseca, Maria Lucinda (November 2008). "New waves of immigration to small towns and rural areas in Portugal: Immigration to Rural Portugal". Population, Space and Place. 14 (6): 525–535. doi:10.1002/psp.514.
  76. ↑ Preibisch, Kerry (2010). "Pick-Your-Own Labor: Migrant Workers and Flexibility in Canadian Agriculture". The International Migration Review. 44 (2): 404–441. doi:10.1111/j.1747-7379.2010.00811.x. ISSN 0197-9183. JSTOR 25740855. S2CID 145604068.
  77. ↑ "Agriculture: How immigration plays a critical role". New American Economy (in Turanci). Archived from the original on 6 April 2023. Retrieved 6 February 2023.
  78. 1 2 3 Cite error: Invalid tag; no text was provided for refs named "FAO-2017".
  79. ↑ "NIOSH Workplace Safety & Health Topic: Agricultural Injuries". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Archived from the original on 28 October 2007. Retrieved 16 April 2013.
  80. ↑ "NIOSH Pesticide Poisoning Monitoring Program Protects Farmworkers". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2011. doi:10.26616/NIOSHPUB2012108. Archived from the original on 2 April 2013. Retrieved 15 April 2013.
  81. 1 2 "NIOSH Workplace Safety & Health Topic: Agriculture". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Archived from the original on 9 October 2007. Retrieved 16 April 2013.
  82. ↑ Weichelt, Bryan; Gorucu, Serap (17 February 2018). "Supplemental surveillance: a review of 2015 and 2016 agricultural injury data from news reports on AgInjuryNews.org". Injury Prevention. 25 (3): injuryprev–2017–042671. doi:10.1136/injuryprev-2017-042671. PMID 29386372. S2CID 3371442. Archived from the original on 27 April 2018. Retrieved 18 April 2018.
  83. ↑ The PLOS ONE staff (6 September 2018). "Correction: Towards a deeper understanding of parenting on farms: A qualitative study". PLOS One. 13 (9). Bibcode:2018PLoSO..1303842.. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0203842. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 6126865. PMID 30188948.
  84. ↑ Lee, Barbara C.; Salzwedel, Marsha A. (2023-01-30). "Safeguarding youth from agricultural injury and illness: The United States' experience". Frontiers in Public Health. 11. Bibcode:2023FrPH...1148576L. doi:10.3389/fpubh.2023.1048576. ISSN 2296-2565. PMC 9922745 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 36794078 Check |pmid= value (help).
  85. ↑ Burke, Richard R.; Berg, Richard L.; Weichelt, Bryan P.; Gabor, Rachel M.; Rudolphi, Josie M.; Bendixsen, Casper G.; VanWormer, Jeffrey J. (April 2026). "A PheWAS Analysis of the Risks and Benefits of Growing Up on a Farm". Journal of Agromedicine. 31 (2): 254–262. doi:10.1080/1059924X.2025.2591079. ISSN 1545-0813. PMID 41275339 Check |pmid= value (help).
  86. ↑ "Agriculture: A hazardous work". International Labour Organization. 15 June 2009. Archived from the original on 3 March 2018. Retrieved 1 April 2018.
  87. ↑ "CDC – NIOSH – NORA Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing Sector Council". NIOSH. 21 March 2018. Archived from the original on 18 June 2019. Retrieved 7 April 2018.
  88. ↑ "CDC – NIOSH Program Portfolio: Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing: Program Description". NIOSH. 28 February 2018. Archived from the original on 8 April 2018. Retrieved 7 April 2018.
  89. ↑ "Protecting health and safety of workers in agriculture, livestock farming, horticulture and forestry". European Agency for Safety and Health at Work. 17 August 2017. Archived from the original on 29 September 2018. Retrieved 10 April 2018.
  90. ↑ Heiberger, Scott (3 July 2018). "The future of agricultural safety and health: North American Agricultural Safety Summit, February 2018, Scottsdale, Arizona". Journal of Agromedicine. 23 (3): 302–304. doi:10.1080/1059924X.2018.1485089. ISSN 1059-924X. PMID 30047853. S2CID 51721534.
Daga "https://ha.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agricultural&oldid=963318"