Iranian Archaeology

Purpose-The main objective of this research is to analyze the role of bones as symbolic and magical elements in Iran mythology and to examine their function as weapons, deathmeans dealing instruments, and life, giving tools. This study seeks to demonstrate, by drawing on diverse narratives from Iranian cultures, rituals, and mythology and comparing them with those of other nations, how bones, as the most durable part of the body and the carrier of the essence of death, have become tools for killing, transferring power, protection, summoning, and even regeneration in the mythical imagination of mankind. Furthermore, the aim of the research is to clarify why, in many mythologies, bones embody a duality of death and birth; that is, how an instrument remaining from a dead body can pave the way for the creation of the world, the generation of new beings, or the strengthening of a hero's power. Finally, through a comparative analysis of mythological examples, the present study endeavors to demonstrate the special place of bones in the cycle of birth, death, and regeneration, and to present a pattern of intercultural common beliefs concerning the power inherent in bones. Methodology-This research has been conducted analytically with a comparative approach, examining narratives from mythologies in which death and birth via bones play a prominent role. The main focus is on Iranian examples. Findings-The findings of this research indicate that bones in the mythologies of various cultures are a symbolic and magical element situated on the boundary between death and life. Examining the narratives revealed that bones, as the most durable part of the body, are considered to be carriers of the force of death, and this very characteristic has led to their use as death, dealing instruments in magic based on similarity, contagion, and diffusion. The findings also show that bones have a dual role in many mythologies: on one hand, they are a deadly weapon and a means of transferring supernatural power, such as the jawbone of the fish in the battle of Darab. On the other hand, they are a life giving substance that can play a role in the creation of the world or rebirth, such as the ossuary, Keyumars or in role of needle. Conclusions-The results of the research indicate that bones in the role of a weapon embody the use of death to overcome death; meaning the stored force of death within the bone is transferred to the enemy. The functions of bones in mythology, creating death, protection, regeneration, and mediation. are common patterns across different cultures, and bones represent one of the most universal symbols in the mythological understanding of death, power, and the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth.

The Chalcolithic-Kura-Araxes transition in northwestern Iran marks a crucial period of social and cultural change, highlighting the need to understand ceramic technology to trace the origins of Kura-Araxes pottery traditions. This study analyzes technological variability and potential continuity in pottery production in the southern Araxes Basin using 20 ceramic sherds from 11 archeological sites and comparative geochemical data from 32 Kura-Araxes samples from the Lake Urmia Basin. Methods include thin-section petrography, p-XRF, and multivariate statistics. The findings demonstrate distinct differences between Chalcolithic and Kura-Araxes ceramics in paste microstructure, inclusion assemblages, and firing conditions, though some geochemical overlap suggests similar local raw material sources. Significant compositional variability also exists within both groups. By presenting new archaeometric data, this study contributes to understanding technological change and ceramic production practices during this pivotal transition in the southern Araxes Basin.

The Greater Larestan region in southern Fars Province, near the Persian Gulf, is one of the ancient cultural regions of the Iranian Plateau and includes nine counties. Historical sources show that Larestan maintained a distinct cultural identity and enjoyed semi-independent governance from at least the Parthian period onward. During the Sasanian, early and middle Islamic eras, it was ruled by local governors known as the "Miladians." Archaeological investigations conducted over the past century, including 21 archaeological surveys, 3 excavation projects, and 10 archaeological sounding programs, have revealed evidence of human occupation in the region since the Middle and Upper Paleolithic and Epipaleolithic periods by the discovering lithic assemblage. Limited Aceramic Neolithic evidence has been found in the Gavbast Mountain area, though no late Neolithic and early farming villages have yet been identified. Population growth became more visible during the Chalcolithic period, especially in the Bakun and Lapui phases of the fifth and fourth millennia BCE, with the emergence of small villages. Evidence from the Proto-Elamite, Elamite, and Achaemenid periods is limited. But Settlement expansion accelerated during the Parthian and especially the Sasanian period, when fortresses and urban centers such as Karian were established. This growth continued into the Islamic era due to the region's strategic location and maritime trade connections. Further Archaeological excavations are still needed to better understand the societies of ancient Larestan.

Visit to the History Museum of Armenia b. Visit to Arteni rhyolitic (obsidian) volcano. c. Visit to Barozh-12, Middle Paleolithic open-air site and obsidian workshop GUIDED TOUR TO THE HISTORY MUSEUM OF ARMENIA The History Museum of Armenia is a nationally significant cultural institution dedicated to preserving and showcasing Armenia's heritage. With a collection of over several hundreds of artifacts spanning from Paleolithic times to today, the museum serves as a bridge between the past and the future, contributing to science, education, and tourism.

Historiography, the writing of history, is thought of as translation of facts into narrative fictions. The translational nature of historiography holds more tenable when historians engage in writing the history of other cultures in their own native language. Some historians also, like cultural anthropologists, engage in cultural translation, since they usually not only travel and use translation to gather their raw material, but also translate the cultural practices of land they are writing its history. Relying on Asad’s (2018) view of cultural anthropology and narrativist historians and in the light of a transdisciplinary view of translation, the present article seeks to show how Greek historiography can be assumed as a translational practice. Second, it aims to explore the translational character of the three leading Classical Greek historians of ancient Persia, Herodotus, Ctesias and Xenophon, and seeks to show how the historiography of the Persian Achaemenid empire is folded through translation, not only in ancient era, but also in modern times, through (re)translations of these so-called primary sources.

Исследование направлено на выявление идейно-ценностных оснований и структурно-содержательных характеристик славянской идентичности молодежи России и стран Восточной Европы. Цель – выявить идейно-ценностные основания и структурно-содержательные характеристики славянской идентичности молодежи России и стран Восточной Европы. Объектом исследования стала именно молодежь славянских стран (Болгарии, Сербии и России), которая в своем повседневном жизненном опыте постоянно сталкивается с теми или иными образами и символами, что в итоге влияет и на их самоидентификацию. В ходе эмпирической части исследования на первом этапе были проведены формализованные интервью, направленные на выявление ценностно-смысловой структуры понятия «славянская идентичность», системы национальных и европейских ценностей, политических, идеологических и идентификационных ориентаций. Вторая часть эмпирического исследования была направлена на выявление ценностно-смысловой структуры и соотношения российской и славянской идентичности российской молодежи, системы ее национальных и европейских ценностей, политических,идеологических и идентификационных. Основным методом исследования был анкетный опрос, содержащий как закрытые, так и открытые вопросы, с применением техник прямого ранжирования и оценочного шкалирования, а также метод свободных ассоциаций. Результаты исследования показали, что молодые люди стран Восточной Европы во многом ориентированы на европейские ценности, и несмотря на евроскептицизм со временем символическая политика ЕС дает свои плоды, особенно среди молодежи этих стран. В понимании российской молодежи славянская идентичность – больше атрибут культуры и истории, который для реальной жизни не является значимым. Поэтому очевидно, что славянская идентичность как российской, так и европейской молодежи слабо коррелирует с их политическим поведением. Между тем, в нашей стране есть хороший потенциал для работы в данном направлении в виду более ярко проявляемых культурных и исторических аспектов славянской идентичности.

This article discusses herding strategies at Kültepe I, a Neolithic settlement situated near one of the southern entrances to the Caucasus. It considers several lines of evidence in relation to these strategies at the beginning of agro-pastoralism and in the following centuries. The study employs methods from classical archaeozoology and isotopic biogeochemistry. A significant proportion of our data originates from the analysis of isotope ratios in sequentially sampled caprine teeth (δ 18 O, δ 13 C and 87 Sr/ 86 Sr). These involve kill-off patterns, reproduction period indices (δ 18 O), variations in dietary composition throughout the year (δ 13 C), and mobility patterns, the latter of which can be discerned through variations in the geology-related strontium isotope ratios ( 87 Sr/ 86 Sr). These analyses suggest that the Kültepe I herds frequented a variety of geologically distinct pasturelands characterised by different vegetation. Some animals that grazed in different, probably non-local, areas, were also consumed at Kültepe I, suggesting that its inhabitants occasionally acquired animals from different herds that had certainly been raised in neighbouring areas. Incidentally, our data also supports the hypothesis that the Neolithic processes in the Caucasus, as well as the development of regional identities, emerged from a heterogeneous substratum. 18 O, δ 13 C et 87 Sr/ 86 Sr) issus de prélèvements séquentiels d'émail dentaire de caprinés. Ces analyses portent sur les âges d'abattage, la saisonnalité des naissances (δ 18 O), les variations intra-annuelles dans l'alimentation (δ 13 C) et la mobilité intra-annuelle entre des zones géologiquement distinctes ( 87 Sr/ 86 Sr). Elles suggèrent que les troupeaux de Kültepe I fréquentaient des pâturages sur divers substrats géologiques et avec des compositions végétales variées. Des animaux ayant fréquenté des pâturages distincts, probablement non-locaux, ont également été consommés sur le site, ce qui suggère que les habitants de Kültepe I avaient également des contacts avec d'autres éleveurs, provenant certainement de régions voisines. Nos données renforcent les hypothèses d'une origine multiple de la néolithisation du Caucase et de la construction d'identités régionales.

This study presents the first multi-analytical archaeometric investigation of red rock art pigments from three painted shelters in North Khorasan Province, Iran-Bash Mahalleh, Zeynekanlu, and Nargeslou, whose motifs span chronologically and stylistically distinct traditions from the Late Chalcolithic/Early Bronze Age to the Iron Age and historical periods. Nine pigment micro-samples (three per site) and one local geological red-earth reference were analyzed using SEM-EDS, micro-Raman, and FTIR spectroscopy. The results consistently identify hematite (α-Fe2O3) as the primary chromophore, confirming the use of natural iron-rich ochres across all studied sites. No alternative iron oxides or synthetic red pigments were detected. Microstructural data reveal dispersed pigment particles within a heterogeneous calcareous matrix, indicating the direct exploitation of local earth resources without advanced processing or intentional refinement. Furthermore, a ubiquitous calcium oxalate monohydrate patina was identified on the painted surfaces, suggesting secondary biogenic weathering or the degradation of ancient organic materials. Despite marked stylistic and chronological differences among the painted shelters, the mineralogical uniformity of the pigments suggests broadly similar technological choices, likely constrained by the regional availability of iron-rich earth resources, thereby providing the first archaeometric framework for interpreting pigment technology in northeastern Iranian rock art. While preliminary spectral data show similarities between the rock art pigments and the geological sample, definitive provenance attribution requires expanded trace-element sourcing.

Northern Teymareh, a subregion of the historical Teymareh area, corresponds to present-day Khomeyn County in Iran's modern political geography. Previous archaeological surveys in this county have identified several underground troglodytic structures, including those of Tahyagh, Danian, Kandeh-ha, Farnaq, Robat Aghaj, Nazi, Choqa Gorg, and Ashnakhor. Archaeological excavations at the Tahyagh and Robat Aghaj sites indicate that these locations were utilized during the Middle Islamic period (particularly during the 12-13 centuries CE). Montazer Zohouri and Sharahi have proposed interpretations regarding the functions of Tahyagh and Robat Aghaj. However, despite the considerable number of identified underground troglodytic structures in Khomeyn County, no comprehensive analytical study has yet been conducted on the causes of their formation, functions, or distribution within this region. Accordingly, the present study seeks to answer the following questions: what is the spatial distribution of underground troglodytic structures in the Northern Teymareh region relative to the landscape, and what factors influenced their formation? The results indicate, first, that several contemporaneous settlement sites are adjacent to some of the underground troglodytic structures. Second, analysis of their spatial distribution in relation to landscape features-such as slope, elevation, rivers, and land use-suggests that they were excavated in locations suitable for irrigated agriculture. Therefore, these sites can be interpreted as part of an agrarian settlement system, in which communities primarily relied on agriculture and lived near their farmlands in the plains, while constructing underground structures for refuge and defensive purposes.

The Zardouyan cemetery, located in the Mariwan valley of northwestern Iran, reveals significant insights into Early Iron Age II (11 th-10 th century BCE) burial practices. Rescue excavations conducted in 2017 uncovered pithos burials, both single and double jar interments, as well as smaller vessels potentially used for cremations. Grave goods consist of portable ceramics. Petrographic analysis indicates local production of burial jars and associated courseware vessels. Carbon-14 dating of skeletal remains, supported by typological analysis of pottery, indicates the site's early Iron Age II chronology. The cemetery's layout, with low stone socle walls demarcating burial groups, reflects social organization plausibly based upon kinship. This study contributes to our understanding of societal structures and material culture in the central Zagros region during the Iron Age, reflecting unique local adaptations by an insular highland society.

Cosmetic artifacts in ancient Iran, as one of the earliest manifestations of cultural expression, exhibited distinct forms and typologies across successive historical periods. This study focuses on the functional and symbolic significance of these artifacts in order to identify a relatively understudied domain of Iranian material culture. It further offers a novel approach to understanding social structures, belief systems, and ritual practices. Such a study provides critical insights into daily life, social hierarchies, and ceremonial activities in ancient Iran. This research addresses two primary questions: first, what was the historical and cultural significance of cosmetic artifacts in ancient Iran; and second, which social groups predominantly employed these tools. To answer these questions, archaeological and historical evidence was analyzed through a synthesis of excavation findings and textual sources. Employing a descriptiveanalytical methodology, data were collected via both library-based research and museum studies. Following this methodological framework, the study focuses on seven principal categories of cosmetic artifacts, examples of which are preserved in the Glass and Ceramics Museum of Iran, as well as in international museums and private collections, including the British Museum, the Louvre Museum, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and the University of Pennsylvania Museum. Based on the evidence examined, cosmetic artifacts were not merely an integral part of daily life but also that their continuity across historical periods underscores their enduring cultural and historical significance. During the early periods, these tools were primarily employed in palatial and ceremonial contexts; over time, however, they became more simplified and functional, gradually spreading across different social groups. Despite their cultural importance, there has been no comprehensive, stand-alone study specifically focused on cosmetic artifacts in ancient Iran. Therefore, a comparative analysis of archaeological evidence and textual sources not only enhances our understanding of the social and cultural role of these tools but also addresses a significant scholarly gap in the study of ancient Iranian material culture.

В статье рассматривается репрезентация авторитарного и конформистского характера в европейском и американском кинематографе второй половины XX в. (на примере фильмов «Конформист» Б. Бертолуччи, «Лакомб Люсьен» Л. Маля и «Зелиг» В. Аллена). Исходной точкой анализа становится роман Ф.М. Достоевского «Бесы» и понятие «стыда собственного мнения», которое трактуется как отсутствие рефлексии, собственной идеологии и устойчивой идентичности. В отличие от социологических и психологических исследований авторитарной личности (Т. Адорно, Э. Фромм, Х. Арендт), кинематограф предлагает особый способ визуализации внутренней пустоты и непроницаемости героев, которые оказываются идеальным материалом для тоталитарных идеологий.
Особое внимание уделяется приемам «негативной репрезентации»: отказу от психологической мотивировки, использованию стеклянных преград, светотеневой композиции и кастингу непрофессиональных актеров. Именно художественная форма позволяет зафиксировать то, что ускользает от вербальной артикуляции, – отсутствие характера как устойчивую антропологическую черту.

Over three years, the Aga Khan Cultural Service-Afghanistan (AKCS-A) archaeological team conducted extensive excavations at multiple locations within Bala Hissar. The project aimed to establish a comprehensive chronological sequence for the site and investigate its various functions across historical periods. Particular emphasis was placed on meticulous data documentation and rigorous post-excavation analysis. This article is a brief overview of the findings of four trenches in two zones (T3-Z2, T4-Z2, T10-Z2, T13-Z1).
The findings are organized into six distinct structural phases, chronologically arranged from the earliest to the latest, with Phase Six dating to the 2nd century BCE and Phase One to the 18th–19th century CE.

The territory corresponding to modern northwestern Iran was permanently occupied for about two centuries by the Kingdom of Urartu during the Middle Iron Age. As in other regions under their control, dozens of Urartian inscriptions have been discovered here, with new ones still being uncovered almost every year. This contribution aims to provide a general overview of the Urartian inscriptions in Iran, with particular attention to recent discoveries, specifically contextualizing six new epigraphs recently found in the region.

This paper reviews the historical process that led to the recent decipherment of Linear Elamite, a script used in southern Iran during the 3rd and early 2nd millennia BCE. After decades of unsuccessful attempts, major progress was achieved through the discovery of new inscriptions and a methodological shift based on systematic comparison with Elamite written in cuneiform. The decipherment demonstrates that Linear Elamite is primarily phonographic, setting it apart from other contemporary writing systems and allowing a more precise representation of the Elamite language. This breakthrough has significant implications: it improves our understanding of Elamite phonology and morphology, enables direct reading of the texts, and provides new insights into the cultural and political landscape of ancient Iran. Furthermore, the script has broader relevance for the history of writing, as it anticipates alphabetic principles earlier than traditionally assumed. The study also highlights the collaborative and interdisciplinary nature of the decipherment process and points to future research directions, emphasizing that many linguistic and historical questions remain open.

This article reads the Tent City of the 1971 celebrations at Persepolis, held to mark the 2,500th anniversary of the founding of the Persian Empire, not simply as accommodation for foreign guests, nor as a secondary setting for a political event, but as a temporary architecture of scenography. Set in deliberate relation to the Achaemenid ruins, the complex produced a staged environment in which hospitality, political display, and the representation of heritage were tightly interwoven. It examines how the camp worked through spatial order and perceptual control: the star-shaped plan, the choreography of movement and vision, the relation between ceremonial and domestic spaces, and the role of objects, furnishings, light, and visual media in shaping an environment designed both for lived experience and for the camera. From this perspective, the Tent City did not function as a neutral backdrop, but as part of the event's scenographic apparatus. The final section of the article briefly considers its afterlife, showing how this temporary environment persisted through physical remains, reuse proposals, and archival mediation. The Persepolis Tent City thus emerges as a revealing case of how temporary architecture could operate at once as event, image, and scenographic construction in direct relation to an archaeological site.

This article reconsiders the pigeon towers of Isfahan not simply as examples of vernacular architecture or agricultural structures, but as an architecture of coexistence between birds, humans, and land. Drawing on historical sources and an architectural reading of the towers, it argues that these buildings were not made for human habitation, but operated as spatial apparatuses for concentrating avian life, collecting manure, and transferring it into cycles of soil fertility. Seen in this light, pigeon towers formed part of the spatial infrastructure of Safavid Isfahan’s agrarian landscape.

The glazed bricks discovered at the Mannaean site of Qalaichi, near modern Bukan in northwestern Iran, constitute an important body of visual evidence for the study of Mannaean culture. Because no substantial corpus of texts written in a specifically Mannaean language has been recovered, the history, religious ideas, and artistic conventions of the Mannaeans must be reconstructed largely from neighboring written sources and archaeological remains. Among the images preserved on the Qalaichi bricks, human-headed winged bulls and lions identified with the Lamassu motif are especially significant. This study examines their formal and iconographic characteristics and asks to what extent they can be compared with Assyrian, Urartian, and broader Near Eastern traditions. It also considers whether the available evidence supports the direct transmission of a fixed iconographic model or whether the Qalaichi examples are better understood through regional artistic interaction, selective adoption, localization, and reinterpretation. Using a descriptive-analytical method and Erwin Panofsky's three-stage approach, the study proceeds from pre-iconographic description to iconographic analysis and iconological interpretation. The findings show that the motifs share fundamental features with neighboring traditions, including composite anatomy, wings, human heads, and protective associations, while their varied crowns, headbands, directions of movement, tails, wings, facial types, and coloration indicate local adaptation rather than mechanical copying.
Introduction
The Mannaeans were one of the major political and cultural communities of northwestern Iran during the first centuries of the first millennium BCE. Their territory lay between powerful neighbors, especially Assyria and Urartu, and their political history is known mainly through the inscriptions and annals of these states. These records establish the Mannaeans as an important regional power but illuminate their internal culture only indirectly. The problem is intensified by the absence of an extensive corpus of indigenous Mannaean texts. Inscriptions found within the geographical sphere of Manna, including the Qalaichi inscription and the inscribed bricks of  Rabat, are written in Aramaic or Assyrian rather than in a securely identified Mannaean language.
Under these conditions, material culture becomes crucial. The site of Qalaichi is particularly important because excavations revealed a Mannaean ritual or monumental complex, an Aramaic inscription, and a remarkable group of glazed bricks decorated with geometric, animal, and fantastic motifs. Although the identification of Qalaichi with the Mannaean capital Izirtu remains debated, the archaeological record indicates that the site was a major Mannaean cultural center.
The Lamassu motifs are significant because composite human-animal guardians had a long history throughout Mesopotamia and the wider ancient Near East. Their widespread distribution, however, creates a methodological problem. Similarity does not itself prove direct borrowing, nor does it demonstrate that different societies attributed identical meanings to the same form. The central issue is therefore how the Qalaichi motifs compare with neighboring traditions and what those comparisons can legitimately reveal about cultural contact. The study consequently distinguishes visual similarity from direct influence and treats Mannaean art as a participant in a broader regional network rather than as a passive reflection of one neighboring culture.

Methodology
The research employs a descriptive-analytical and library-based method and adopts Panofsky's three levels of image interpretation. At the pre-iconographic level, the Qalaichi Lamassu motifs are described without assigning symbolic meanings. The corpus includes two principal variants of the human-headed winged bull and six variants of the human-headed winged lion. Attention is given to direction of movement, arrangement of the legs, tail, wings and feathers, color, facial structure, hair, beard, crowns, headbands, and other visible attributes. This stage establishes the formal diversity of the Qalaichi material before comparative interpretation begins.
At the second level, iconographic analysis identifies the subject and its conventional associations through comparison with ancient texts and related works of art. Akkadian terminology concerning Lamassu and Shedu, earlier Mesopotamian traditions associated with Lama figures, Assyrian guardian sculptures, Elamite examples, Urartian imagery, and other Near Eastern representations provide the main comparative framework. Literary evidence, including the Enuma Elish and later narratives involving composite guardians, is used to clarify conventional roles attached to such beings. Comparison is not treated as proof of direct derivation, but as a means of identifying shared visual and mythological vocabularies.
The iconological level considers the deeper cultural and ritual implications of the motifs. It asks how a composite guardian image may have functioned within the architectural and religious context of Qalaichi and what its local reformulation suggests about Mannaean participation in regional cultural exchange. Because direct Mannaean explanatory texts are unavailable, conclusions about meaning, influence, and transmission remain probabilistic.

Discussion & Results
The pre-iconographic evidence demonstrates that the Qalaichi material cannot be reduced to one rigid visual formula. The winged bulls are shown in profile with human heads, but the disposition of the legs, direction and curvature of the tail, length and coloring of the feathers, and details of crown and hair vary. The winged lions display even greater variation. Some figures are bearded and others unbearded; crowns and headbands differ; the figures face different directions; and the treatment of muscles, wings, tails, and color is not uniform. A repeated composite body therefore coexists with substantial freedom in details.
Iconographically, the motifs belong to an older Near Eastern tradition of composite supernatural beings. Mesopotamian sources associate Lamassu and Shedu with protective functions, and monumental Assyrian human-headed winged bulls and lions famously guarded palace and temple entrances. Earlier traditions concerning Lama figures and later Akkadian terminology indicate that the concept was neither static nor limited to one visual type. In the Assyrian sphere, the guardian function became especially prominent: the creature combined human intelligence, the physical strength of a bull or lion, and the elevated or celestial capacity signified by wings.
The Qalaichi examples are comparable to this tradition in their composite anatomy and probable protective connotations. The archaeological context of an important Mannaean sacred or monumental complex makes a guardian interpretation plausible. Nevertheless, the evidence does not establish that the Qalaichi bricks reproduced an Assyrian prototype without change. The simultaneous presence of bull-bodied and lion-bodied forms, male and unbearded human heads, distinct headdresses, different directions of movement, and varied decorative treatment points instead to selective use and local reformulation of a shared regional repertoire. Some features have close analogies in Assyrian and Mesopotamian art, while others are comparable to Urartian and Anatolian traditions.
Ancient literary traditions also demonstrate that the meanings of composite beings could change. The Enuma Elish describes terrifying hybrid creatures in the cosmic conflict involving Tiamat and Marduk, whereas later Mesopotamian traditions emphasize benevolent protective spirits. The study therefore treats the protective Lamassu as a historically developed convention rather than the inevitable meaning of every hybrid image.
The comparison with the Greek Sphinx in the Oedipus narrative illustrates the same methodological caution. The Sphinx stands at the threshold of Thebes, controls passage, tests travelers, and possesses both human intelligence and dangerous animal power. These features recall the broader guardian logic of Near Eastern composite beings, yet the Greek figure has a distinct narrative identity and cannot simply be equated with the Assyrian Lamassu. Similarly, later Islamic representations of Buraq preserve the broader idea of a powerful composite creature combining human and animal features. Formal resemblance permits discussion of long-lived symbolic strategies, but it does not prove that Buraq is a direct continuation of the ancient Lamassu.
At the iconological level, the Qalaichi motifs are best interpreted within the dense political and cultural contacts linking Manna, Assyria, Urartu, Elam, and other communities of western Iran and Mesopotamia. Warfare, diplomacy, trade, mobility of craftsmen, and movement of prestigious objects could all contribute to the circulation of images. Yet circulation does not require cultural homogenization. A society may adopt a recognizable motif because of its prestige or ritual usefulness while altering its details and meanings to suit a local context. The formal diversity of the Qalaichi bricks is consistent with such selective appropriation and localization.
A distinction can therefore be drawn between shared and potentially local characteristics. The human-headed winged quadruped, the association of lion or bull bodies with power, the use of wings, and the broader guardian vocabulary have strong parallels in neighboring traditions. By contrast, the particular combinations of crown and headband, facial type, beard, color scheme, feather pattern, tail configuration, orientation, and the coexistence of multiple variants within the Qalaichi assemblage may represent Mannaean workshop choices and local visual preferences. These features do not prove an entirely independent Mannaean iconography, but they show that local artis...

The narrow valleys of Seimarreh, with their high ecological potential and strategic location between the lowlands and the Zagros highlands, hold particular significance for archaeological research. Nevertheless, despite the earlier efforts of foreign researchers, the region has rarely been subjected to systematic and focused investigation, with the exception of the Huleilan Valley. The salvage project in the reservoir area of the Seimarreh Dam, initiated in 2009, provided a valuable opportunity to expand our knowledge of the prehistoric and even historic societies of the region. The identification and investigation of important areas such as East Chia Sabz demonstrates the potential for the earliest settlers to have occupied these valleys. Cham Qule is another prehistoric settlement in this area that has yielded evidence dating to the sixth and fifth millennia BCE and was excavated over two seasons. Archaeological evidence points to a notable pattern linking the abandonment of Chia Sabz with the formation of Cham Qule, a transition that extended for about a thousand years. This discontinuity in settlement may have been caused by the massive landslides of Kabir Kouh and Pusht e Bil, which occurred around the end of the eighth or the beginning of the seventh millennium BCE. Given that the lake formed by the damming of the Seimarreh and Kashkan Rivers persisted for about a thousand years, it appears that even after this period, the lake waters had not fully drained. For a further two or three thousand years, river depths and water levels remained higher than at present. Accordingly, the inhabitants of a settlement such as Cham Qule, which is enclosed by canyons with only two narrow gorges providing access to surrounding areas, probably travelled by boat. Evidence recovered from the excavations at Cham Qule should help clarify this hypothesis.

This paper proposes a unified ethnogenetic model for IndoIranian steppe populations across more than four millennia. Integrating genetic, linguistic, clananthropological, and historical evidence, it demonstrates that the IndoAryans of the Rigvedic period, the Scythians/Saka, the Massagetae, the Dahae, the Yuezhi, the Kushans, and several modern NorthWestern Indian clans represent successive waves of a single IndoIranian steppe macropopulation. Ancient DNA confirms biological continuity through R1aZ93 lineages and Western Steppe Herder ancestry. Linguistic analysis reveals persistent clan names across Rigvedic, Scythian, Yuezhi, and Kushan traditions. Clan anthropology shows stable patrilineal structures across migrations and political transformations. Historical sources from Sanskrit, Avestan, Greek, Persian, Chinese, and Bactrian traditions converge on a single ethnographic reality: these groups were not distinct peoples but temporally separated waves of the same macrotribe. Modern Jats, Rajputs, Gujjars, Baloch, and Pashtuns preserve IndoIranian clan names, structures, and genetic signatures, representing the final synthesis of IndoIranian ethnogenesis.

The resurgence of Origenism in the sixth century became an insidious problem for more than half of Justinian’s reign (527–565). In various cultural milieux of the eastern Mediterranean, especially in the monastic circles of Palestine, Origenist ideas (heavily influenced by Evagrius Ponticus) circulated within an eclectic intellectual environment in which they coexisted and intertwined with Neoplatonic philosophy, ascetic traditions, and a range of heterodox currents of thought. The unrest generated by this heterogeneous constellation of ideas is already visible in the early sixth century and ultimately reached its climax in the formal condemnation of Origenism at the Fifth Ecumenical Council, Constantinople II (553).
The historical development and doctrinal content of sixth-century Origenism have been widely studied (Hombergen 2001; Homenberg 2004; Daley 1995). Likewise, the interaction of Origenist doctrines with Neoplatonism, as well as with various ascetic trends popular in monastic circles, has attracted scholarly attention in recent years (Pirtea 2021; Krausmüller 2014; Perczel 2020). However, there is a religious doctrine whose connection with 6th-century Origenism has to be yet studied in depth: Manichaeism. The religion founded by the prophet Mani (216-274/277) in third-century Mesopotamia was arguably the most harshly persecuted religious group in late Roman society. From the time of the emperor Diocletian onward, Manichaeism was subjected to severe repression by the Roman state, in a process of persecution that culminated precisely during the reign of Justinian (Lieu 1994; Matsangou 2023).
Sixth-century sources, in fact, mention the presence of Manichaean individuals and/or ideas in the same environments in which Origenism was active. Moreover, anti-Origenist authors accuse Origenists of appropriating Manichaean doctrines (Perczel 2004; Bumazhnov 2021). Therefore, this paper will address the alleged relationship between these two religious systems and their interaction in different cultural milieux of the period through: (1) historical sources concerning Origenists and Manichaeans in the sixth century; (2) Western Manichaean doctrinal sources; (3) testimonies concerning sixth-century Origenist doctrines (such as the Book of Hierotheos). The paper thus seeks to determine whether the alleged Manichaean influence on contemporary Origenism has any real basis and, more broadly, to shed light on the eclectic cultural environment of the period.

The 2025 excavation of the SAR53 site within Saruq al-Hadid (Dubai, UAE), conducted by the Sanisera Archaeology Institute under the supervision of the Dubai Culture and Arts Authority, examined two areas of the site (Areas O and T) and identified activity dating to the Iron Age II. The principal phase, dated to the 9th-early 8th century BCE, combined copper production and the deliberate deposition of ritual objects within the same sector, where metalworking residues were recovered alongside snake figurines, serpentdecorated pottery, weaponry, and other symbolically charged items such as soft-stone vessels, jewellery, and shells bearing pigment. A later phase is associated with charcoal production linked to the supply of fuel for metallurgical processes. Previously interpreted as a peripheral fuel-supply zone for the neighbouring SAR7 sector, SAR53 instead emerges as a self-contained locus of the same practices, suggesting that the embedding of metallurgy within ceremonial life was not restricted to SAR7 but formed part of a broader pattern structuring Saruq al-Hadid as a whole.

Carnivores, including the striped hyena, are only marginally represented in faunal assemblages from archaeological sites across the Arabian Peninsula. However, recent discoveries of striped hyena remains bearing cut marks indicative of butchery practices at two archaeological sites in Saudi Arabia-Thāj, located near the Arabian Gulf, and Dadan (AlUla), situated inland not far from the Red Sea-raise important questions regarding the consumption of this carnivore by human populations during Late Antiquity (3rd-7th centuries AD).

Analysis of historic aerial photography has identified a possible monumental formal garden complex on the outskirts of Tabriz, Iran. Here, the authors describe this complex and explain why it is an important addition to our knowledge of elite Persian garden design practice that spread globally over time.

В ходе раскопок 2024 г. на поселении Бюловкая было обнаружено большое число керамических изделий, позволяющих говорить об интенсивных связях Южного Кавказа с Ближним Воcтоком. Изучение их показывает, что в районе Нахчывана существовала местная культура, отличная от культуры Далма Тепе, распространенной в бассейне оз. Урмия, но также находившаяся под влиянием убейдской культуры. По-видимому, богатые естественные ресурсы и особенно месторождения обсидиана, а также обильные пастбища Нахчывана стимулировали интенсивное проникновение в этот регион ближневосточных культурных традиций.

The present paper seeks to offer a new interpretative scenario against the background of which to assess the dynamics underlying the interactions between the Achaemenid empire (during the reign of Cyrus) and the peoples of the steppes, which presided over the formation of what it is usually referred to as the frontier of the empire itself in Central Asia. To this end, a set of literary sources whose influence on the interpretation in strongly oppositional terms of the above-sketched process has been, and continues to be, very significant will be critically scrutinized. In a second step, archaeological evidence and comparative material of a historical ethnographic nature will be added, with the overarching aim of framing the literary evidence into a broader and, as it shall be argued, more proper social, economic, and ecologic context.
  The outcome of such a study will hopefully be a more nuanced and complex picture of a crucial phase of Achaemenid history in Central Asia. In the light of the framework which shall be worked out, while on the one hand the driving force and organizational capacity of the new political entity will emerge as decisive elements in the formation of a new, distinctive, «imperial space» north of Bactr(i)a, on the other hand, the role of local communities in negotiating the modalities of their integration within the networks resulting from the birth and expansion of Achaemenid rule in the area, while in not a few cases even shaping them, will appear as having been of no lesser crucial role.

This paper examines how metallurgy, manufacturing technique, and instrument geometry determine the acoustic behavior of gongs, singing bowls, bells, and other resonant metal instruments. Rather than treating metal as a passive carrier of sound, it considers the metal itself as the sound-producing body, with alloy composition, density, stiffness, hardness, internal damping, crystalline structure, thickness, residual stress, hammering, and heat treatment all contributing to the resulting vibrational field.
High-tin bronze, nickel silver, titanium, and stainless steel are compared as distinct metallurgical systems, each producing different relationships between mass, stiffness, modal interaction, overtone structure, sustain, beating, and decay. Particular emphasis is placed on the fact that alloy composition alone cannot predict an instrument’s acoustic character; forging, rolling, quenching, annealing, hammering, tuning, and variations in thickness and curvature substantially alter how energy moves through the finished instrument. The artisan and manufacturing process therefore become integral parts of the acoustical system.
The paper concludes that metals should not be ranked simply as acoustically superior or inferior. Instead, each combination of alloy, metallurgical treatment, geometry, and craftsmanship creates a distinct vibrational system. The more useful question is not which metal sounds best, but what kind of measurable acoustic field each metal-and-manufacturing system produces and how those differences can be objectively characterized.

The Qasr e Shirin region, located along the historic Khorasan trade route in western
Iran, represents a significant cultural landscape that supported both sedentary
agricultural communities and mobile pastoral groups during the Sasanian period.
This study investigates the spatial organization, settlement patterns, and functional
relationships of Sasanian-period sites within the Qasr e Shirin plain using a landscape
archaeological approach that integrates Geographic Information Systems (GIS), remote
sensing data, and archaeological survey evidence. Spatial analyses were conducted to
examine the relationships between archaeological sites and environmental variables,
including topography, land use, communication routes, water resources, and vegetation
cover. The results indicate that the region was characterized by a dual settlement
system consisting of a centralized administrative–agricultural complex and a network
of dispersed pastoral settlements. Several sites display characteristics commonly
associated with mobile pastoral lifeways, including ephemeral architectural remains,
dry-stone constructions, extensive pottery scatters, and locations closely associated
with seasonal grazing lands. GIS-based analyses further demonstrate that many of these
settlements were located in elevated areas suitable for pastoral activities, whereas major
administrative and agricultural centers were concentrated in the lower and more fertile
sections of the plain. The distribution of sites, their proximity to communication routes,
and their relationship to water resources suggest the presence of an integrated settlement
network in which nomadic and sedentary communities interacted within a shared socioeconomic
landscape. This study argues that pastoral nomadic groups constituted an
important component of the Sasanian cultural landscape of Qasr e Shirin and that their
settlements formed part of a broader regional system closely connected to agricultural
production, administrative authority, and long-distance communication networks.
These findings contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of the diversity of
settlement organization and human–environment interactions in the western Zagros
during the Sasanian period.

Greater Khorasan, also called the "Cultural Road" or the "Chlorite Road" in the third millennium BC, was not only the way for the passage of lapis lazuli, turquoise, and chlorite between Jiroft, Central Asia, and Mesopotamia, but was also considered a factor in the transmission of style, artistic content, and common symbolic concepts between these civilizations. The representation of the human as an active agent-engaged in struggle or portrayed as a hero-has long been observed across cultures worldwide as a means of expressing structures of power. The consolidation of human power aligns with primordial archetypes of humanity. In the discovered artifacts of the Jiroft civilization, dominant motifs frequently depict humans engaged in combat. The central issue of this study is to analyze the structure of power as represented in a selected Jiroft artifact, aiming to demonstrate how power is attained and consolidated by the human figure through visual composition. This research, through the purposeful selection of a conical vase from Jiroft, employs a documentary approach and content analysis method, utilizing Greimas's semiotic square as an analytical tool. It examines the complex structure of the artwork by identifying surface-level binaries (top/bottom) and deep-level binaries (power/weakness), extracting the narrative actions embedded in the composition, and subsequently analyzing the temporal relationships within the narrative. It is understood that the artist, fully aware of the visual characteristics and compositional structure, has successfully aligned abstract concepts related to power with the visual framework of the composition. Both the surface structure and deep structure of the artwork have been employed to articulate the dynamics of power. The consolidation of power is synchronized with the narrative actions of the artwork and is achieved through its visual structure (composition) and formal design. The semantic square model reveals that the consolidation of power in the human figure occurs through a process involving the overcoming of weakness and the transition through the intermediate position of non-weakness. The images possess a narrative structure in which the sequence of events, narrative time, and visual representation are aligned to express the theme of human power. The artist, guided by the form and compositional structure, has designated a beginning and an end point for the narrative. This narrative framework reflects both a time preceding the depicted moment and the internal progression of the story itself.

Authors: Gita Mesbah

According to the history of the Samanid period, the peak of the era of earthenware production was at a stage of beauty and creativity, and artists throughout Iran, especially Greater Khorasan, devoted themselves to creating glazed earthenware. The earthenware of this region, regardless of its external beauty and the special techniques used to prepare its glaze, has special characteristics in the type of decoration, and the Transoxiana region, especially the Samarkand region and its dependencies such as Chach, has had this characteristic. This research seeks to answer this question: Based on archaeological findings, can the Samarkand region be considered an independent school in Transoxiana earthenware art? The present research method is genre analysis, a set of qualitative methods, and data collection is done through library methods. Studies show a clear similarity in terms of the type of glaze application and some of the decorations used on the works of the Transoxiana region. However, despite the technical influence of Neyshabur, Samarkand and its neighboring regions, they had a local character and the use of real and mythological themes was of interest to them. On the other hand, due to the presence of some small decorations in the works of Samarkand and neighboring regions and the lack of use of these small decorations in Neyshabur, there is a special distinction between the works of these regions centered on Samarkand and Neyshabur. The results of the research indicated that due to the presence of some special features, both in the type of decorations and in terms of content, Samarkand can be considered as a special style that has a special school.

Authors: Azar Moukhah

Tombstones are one of the manifestations of the culture and beliefs of each society and represent the religious customs of the people of each region, which are noteworthy due to their historical and archaeological values. This research has examined the tombstones of the shrine of Maulana Zainuddin Abu Bakr Tāybādi, located in Khorasan Razavi in Tāybād County. To conduct this descriptive-analytical research, one hundred and seven tombstones were studied, and eleven samples were purposefully selected due to their similarity in pattern and design. The collection includes the tombs of Maulana Zainuddin Abu Bakr Tāybādi and four of his relatives, three of the martyrs of the Holy Defense (Iraq-Iran war), and about one hundred tombstones belonging to the residents of Tāybād. The aim of the research is to study the structure of the inscriptions, themes, and designs of the tombstones and to answer the question of what is the form of the inscriptions, designs, and decorations in the structure of the tombstones of this collection? The findings show that the themes containing verses and divine Allah's names refer to the permanence of Allah, the Almighty, and the mortality of sinful man. Tombstones are generally divided into staircase, on ground, raised, etc. shapes with visual elements such as a Mihrab with a circle in the upper part, a Mihrab with horizontal inscriptions one under the other, etc. The motifs have a decorative rhythm that is dominant in the thought and culture of the society of that era and are seen in the form of geometric motifs, plant motifs, and symbolic motifs. The type of script of the inscriptions is mostly Nastaliq and Thuluth, which is written with the content of Quranic verses and hadiths, the name and nickname of the deceased, and the date of his/her death, all of which include a request for forgiveness and pardon for the deceased. (feminine)

Authors:Monire Gaziki nezhad

TThis paper explores the phenomenon of visual culture that emerges from connections or collisions of peoples and the way stylistic and other choices of those relationships, specifically in the material culture of Hasanlu, Iran, during Period IVb (1050–800 BCE). This case study focuses on stylistic and cultural interactions embodied in sheet metal belts, a category of artifacts from Hasanlu found with the bodies of a few, likely elite, men in burials in Hasanlu’s outer town, loci where we might expect to find objects related to the construction and negotiation of local identity and hierarchy. These belts conform to three types, each of which is produced through particular material and stylistic entanglements and is represented in distinct citadel contexts. Historically, scholars have amplified the local significance of identifiably Assyrian elements within these stylistic admixtures. This paper suggests that these amplifications echo colonialist assumptions about cultural transmission in asymmetric contact situations and argues that the some of the features identifiable through attribution studies as ’foreign’ in the mixed artistic production of Hasanlu, including sheet metal belts,are derived from the contents of citadel buildings, and would have resonated with residents of Hasanlu as expressions of local identity and power.

Early human habitation of the arid to semiarid Central Iranian Plateau was strongly connected to the availability of water and associated natural hazards, such as flooding and drought events. In this geoarchaeological study, we focus on the occupation at the prehistoric site of Ajor Pazi within the formerly active fluvial environment of the Varamin Plain. Through radiocarbon and luminescence-dated sediment cross-sections, we apply multivariate statistics to sedimentological characteristics of bulk samples collected during a rescue excavation in 2018. Based on facies interpretations, we differentiate depositional processes and present their implications for the environs of Ajor Pazi. Our results show evidence of settlement activities between 6.4 and 5.6 ka cal B.P. (4.4-3.6 ka cal. B.C.E.). Phases of reduced geomorphodynamics can be distinguished when soil-forming processes take place. Our findings provide insights into the hitherto scarcely explored Transitional Chalcolithic II period during which the site of Ajor Pazi emerged and began to shape its environs.

این مقاله ضمن معرفی زندگی و اندیشه‌های مارتین سلیگمن، به بررسی ارتباط میان روان‌شناسی مثبت‌گرا و توسعه ملی می‌پردازد و استدلال می‌کند که توسعه پایدار تنها به افزایش شاخص‌های اقتصادی محدود نیست، بلکه مستلزم ارتقای بهزیستی روان‌شناختی، سرمایه اجتماعی و شکوفایی شهروندان است. از این منظر، پرورش شهروندانی امیدوار، مسئولیت‌پذیر، خلاق و تاب‌آور می‌تواند یکی از پیش‌شرط‌های اساسی تحقق توسعه انسانی و پیشرفت پایدار در جوامع معاصر، از جمله ایران، محسوب شود.

In the wake of massive economic and industrial developments, a new form of contract has emerged wherein one party—possessing superior or monopolistic power—drafts, proposes, and publicly offers the terms and conditions, while the other party is compelled by necessity to accept all proposed terms, given that the subject matter of the contract constitutes a basic necessity of human life. In legal terminology, such agreements are known as "contracts of adhesion" (or "adhesion contracts"); prime examples include contracts for the provision of water, electricity, gas, and telephone services.

After defining the contract of adhesion and outlining its characteristics, this article elucidates the legal nature of such agreements and concludes by examining their validity and enforceability, particularly as they fall within the category of transactions entered into under necessity.

Keywords: Contract of adhesion, necessity, *La-Darar* rule (no-harm principle), *La-Haraj* rule (no-undue-hardship principle).

This interdisciplinary study allowed me to establish, on the basis of linguistic, genetic, archaeological, historical and religious data, that linguistic concordances between Gaulish and Slavic were linked with Palaeolithic/Neolithic migrations from NorthWestern India and Pakistan to Iran, Mesopotamia, Anatolia, the Caucasus, the North of the Black Sea, Danubic and Balkan Europe, Gaul and Iberia, where Neolithic farmers contributed to the formation of the megalithic civilisation which developed in Gaul from 5.000 BCE and brought an archaic language stemming from a Trans-Eurasian original language. Burushaski, recently dated from 16,000 BCE, could be close to this original language. This explains the linguistic concordances I established between Gaulish and Dravidian languages-250 common words from the 500 words I studied (and 160 with Burushaski), as well as with Altaic, Uralic, Kartvelian, Anatolian, Papuan and Middle-Eastern languages. This also explains similarities I have found in the organisation of the Society and religion, which lead certain researchers to suggest, on the basis of the spread of the very ancient haplogroup H2 P-96 Y-DNA from India to Western Europe, that first Europeans and proto-Dravidians had a very ancient common origin, as the macrohaplogroup F and the haplogroup H Y-DNA could appear in India, as well as haplogroup C Y-DNA, found in Vinča and in France, and Central Asian haplogroups F, K, P, Q Y-DNA were found in Europe at significant levels from Serbia and Croatia to France and Great Britain, which pleads for a Central Asian origin of Gauls, Celts and Balkan peoples. Cette étude interdisciplinaire m'a permis de démontrer, sur la base de données linguistiques, génétiques, archéologiques, historiques et religieuses, que les correspondances linguistiques entre le gaulois et le slave étaient liées à des migrations Paléolithiques/Néolithiques d'Inde et du Pakistan du Nord-Ouest vers l'Iran, la Mésopotamie, l'Anatolie, le Caucase, le Nord de la Mer Noire, l'Europe danubienne et balkanique, la Gaule et l'Ibérie, où les agriculteurs néolithiques ont contribué à former la civilisation mégalithique qui s'est développée en Gaule à partir de 5.000 AEC et apporté une langue archaïque issue d'une langue originelle trans-eurasienne. Le burushaski, récemment daté de 16.000 AEC, pourrait en être proche. Cela explique les correspondances linguistiques que j'ai établies entre le gaulois et les langues dravidiennes-250 mots communs sur les 500 mots étudiés (et 160 avec le burushaski), ainsi qu'avec les langues altaïques, ouraliennes, kartvéliennes, anatoliennes, papoues et moyen-orientales. Cela explique aussi les similitudes constatées dans l'organisation de la société et la religion, qui amènent certains chercheurs à suggérer, sur la base de la diffusion du très ancien haplo-groupe H2 P-96 d'Inde à l'Europe de l'Ouest, que les premiers Européens et les proto-Dravidiens avaient une origine commune très ancienne, le macro-haplo-groupe F et l'haplogroupe H Y-ADN ayant pu apparaitre en Inde, comme l'haplo-groupe C Y-ADN, trouvé à Vinča et en France, et les haplo-groupes centre-asiatiques Y-ADN F, K, P, Q.

This interdisciplinary study allowed me to establish, on the basis of linguistic, genetic, archaeological, historical and religious data, that linguistic concordances between Gaulish and Slavic were linked with Palaeolithic/Neolithic migrations from NorthWestern India and Pakistan to Iran, Mesopotamia, Anatolia, the Caucasus, the North of the Black Sea, Danubic and Balkan Europe, Gaul and Iberia, where Neolithic farmers contributed to the formation of the megalithic civilisation which developed in Gaul from 5,000 BCE and brought an archaic language stemming from a Trans-Eurasian original language. This explains the linguistic concordances I established between Gaulish and Dravidian languages-250 common words from the 500 words I studied (and 160 with Burushaski), as well as with Altaic, Uralic, Kartvelian, Anatolian, Papuan and Middle-Eastern languages. This also explains similarities I have found in the organisation of the Society and religion, which lead certain researchers to suggest, on the basis of the spread of the very ancient haplogroup H2 P-96 from India to Western Europe, that first Europeans and proto-Dravidians had a very ancient common origin, as macrohaplogroup F, from which derived haplogroups GHIJK and in particular haplogroup H Y-DNA, could appear in India more than 50 kya, as well as haplogroup C Y-DNA, found in Vinča, and Central Asian haplogroups F, K, P, Q Y-DNA were found in Europe at significant frequencies from Serbia and Croatia to France and Great Britain, which pleads for a Central Asian origin of Gauls, Celts and Balkan peoples. Cette étude interdisciplinaire m'a permis de démontrer, sur la base de données linguistiques, génétiques, archéologiques, historiques et religieuses, que les correspondances linguistiques entre le gaulois et le slave étaient liées à des migrations Paléolithiques/Néolithiques d'Inde et du Pakistan du Nord-Ouest vers l'Iran, la Mésopotamie, l'Anatolie, le Caucase, le Nord de la Mer Noire, l'Europe danubienne et balkanique, la Gaule et l'Ibérie, où les agriculteurs néolithiques ont contribué à former la civilisation mégalithique qui s'est développée en Gaule à partir de 5.000 AEC et apporté une langue archaïque issue d'une langue originelle trans-eurasienne. Cela explique les correspondances linguistiques que j'ai établies entre le gaulois et les langues dravidiennes-250 mots communs sur les 500 mots étudiés (et 160 avec le burushaski), ainsi qu'avec les langues altaïques, ouraliennes, kartvéliennes, anatoliennes, papoues et moyen-orientales. Cela explique aussi les similitudes constatées dans l'organisation de la société et la religion, qui amènent certains chercheurs à suggérer, sur la base de la diffusion du très ancien haplo-groupe H2 P-96 Y-ADN de l'Inde à l'Europe de l'Ouest, que les premiers Européens et les proto-Dravidiens avaient une origine commune très ancienne, le macro-haplo-groupe F, dont dérivent les haplo-groupes GHIJK, et en particulier l'haplogroupe H Y-ADN ayant pu apparaitre en Inde, comme l'haplo-groupe C Y-ADN, trouvé à Vinča, et les haplo-groupes centreasiatiques F, K, P, Q Y-ADN ont été trouvés en Europe.