مواد ڏانھن هلو

چين جي تاريخ

کليل ڄاڻ چيڪلي، وڪيپيڊيا مان
هڏين تي لکيل چين جي تاريخ

چين جي تاريخ وسيع جاگرافيائي علائقي تي پکڙيل ڪيترن ئي هزارن سالن تي مشتمل آهي. چيني تهذيب جي شروعات ييلو ندي ۽ يانگزي ندي جي وادين مان ٿي، جيڪا اڳتي هلي دنيا جي قديم ترين تهذيبن جي گهوارن مان هڪ بڻجي وئي. روايتي تاريخ نويسي هن ماضي کي شاهي خاندانن جي دورن جي تناظر ۾ ڏسي ٿي. سڀ کان پهريون تصديق ٿيل تاريخي دور "شانگ خاندان" (تقريبن 1250 قبل مسيح) سان شروع ٿئي ٿو، جنهن "هڏين تي لکيل" (oracle bone) قديم ترين تحريرون ڇڏيون. ان کان پوءِ "زائو خاندان" (لڳ ڀڳ 1046 ق.م. کان 256 ق.م.) جو دور آيو؛ اهو هڪ اهڙو دور هو جنهن "آسماني اختيار" يا حڪمراني جو خدائي حق (mandate of heaven) جو تصور متعارف ڪرايو ۽ ڪنفيوشس ازم (Confucianism)، تاؤ ازم (Taoism) ۽ ليگلزم (Legalism) لاءِ فلسفياڻا بنياد رکيا.

چين کي پهريون ڀيرو 221 ق.م. ۾ "چن شي هوانگ" (Qin Shi Huang) هڪ مرڪزي شاهي رياست هيٺ متحد ڪيو. ان کان پوءِ ايندڙ "هان خاندان" (202 ق.م. کان 220 عيسوي) هڪ ڊگهي عرصي تائين قائم رهندڙ شاهي نظام قائم ڪيو، ڪنفيوشس ازم کي سرڪاري حيثيت ڏني ۽ ڪاغذ سازي جهڙين اهم ٽيڪنالاجي ترقيءَ کي هٿي ڏني. صدين تائين جاري رهندڙ انتشار ۽ ڦُٽڪار (جنهن دوران ٻڌمت جو ڦهلاءُ ٿيو) کان پوءِ، "سوئي خاندان" (581ع کان 618ع) ۽ "تانگ خاندان" (618ع کان 907ع) پاران شاهي اتحاد بحال ڪيو ويو؛ اهو دور شاعري، ثقافت ۽ وسيع پيماني تي ٿيندڙ بين الاقوامي واپار جو "سونهري دور" هو. ان کان پوءِ "سونگ خاندان" (960 کان 1279) جو دور آيو، جنهن ڪاٺ جي ٺپي ذريعي ڇپائي (wood block printing)، ٽيڪنالاجي ۽ شاهي امتحاني نظام ۾ اهم ترقيون آنديون.

13هين صديءَ ۾، منگول سلطنت چين کي فتح ڪيو ۽ "يوان خاندان" (1271ع کان 1368ع) جي حڪومت قائم ڪئي. "منگ خاندان" (1368ع کان 1644ع) سان گڏ "هان خاندان" جي حڪمراني واپس آئي؛ هي خاندان سامونڊي دريافتن، فنن ۽ "چين جي عظيم ديوار" توڙي "گرانڊ ڪينال" جي وڏي پيماني تي بحاليءَ لاءِ مشهور آهي. آخري شاهي سلسلو، يعني مانچو (Manchu) قيادت وارو "چنگ خاندان" (1644ع کان 1912ع) هو، جنهن چين جي علائقي کي ان جي شاهي عروج تائين وڌايو، پر پوءِ 19هين صديءَ ۾ سخت اندروني عدم استحڪام ۽ غير ملڪي طاقتن هٿان فوجي شڪستن جو شڪار ٿيو.

سال 1911ع جي انقلاب شاهي حڪمرانيءَ جو خاتمو ڪيو ۽ "جمهوريه چين" (ROC) جو بنياد وڌو. ان کان پوءِ ڏهاڪن تائين تڪرارن جو سلسلو جاري رهيو، جن ۾ "ٻئي چين-جاپان جنگ" ۽ "چيني گهرو ويڙهه" شامل هئا. 1949ع ۾، چين جي ڪميونِسٽ پارٽي جي اڳواڻ مائوزي تنگ (Mao Zedong) مکيه سرزمين تي "عوامي جمهوريه چين" (PRC) جي قيام جو اعلان ڪيو، جڏهن ته "ريپبلڪ آف چائنا" (ROC) جي حڪومت تائيوان ڏانهن منتقل ٿي وئي. ثقافتي انقلاب کان پوءِ، 1978ع ۾ ڊينگ شياؤپنگ (Deng Xiaoping) جي اڳواڻي ۾ چين سڌارن ۽ "کليل پاليسي" جو آغاز ڪيو، جنهن ملڪ کي دنيا جي تيز ترين ترقي ڪندڙ وڏي معيشت ۾ تبديل ڪري ڇڏيو.

تاريخ کان اڳ جو دور

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قديم پٿر جو دور

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قديم پٿر وارو دور
"پيڪنگ مين" جي کوپڙي جي روايتي نئين سر تعمير
"يوانمو مين" جي ڏندن جا نمونا
شانڪسي هسٽري ميوزيم ۾ موجود کوپڙي جي بحالي
LL-1 اڌوري کوپڙي

The archaic human species of Homo erectus arrived in Eurasia sometime between 1.3 and 1.8 million years ago (Ma) and numerous remains of its subspecies have been found in what is now China.[1] The oldest of these is the southwestern Yuanmou Man (元谋人; in Yunnan), dated to ت. 1.7 Ma, which lived in a mixed bushland-forest environment alongside chalicotheres, deer, the elephant Stegodon, rhinos, cattle, pigs, and the giant short-faced hyena.[2] The better-known Peking Man (北京猿人; near Beijing) of 700,000–400,000 BP,[1] was discovered in the Zhoukoudian cave alongside scrapers, choppers, and, dated slightly later, points, burins, and awls.[3] Other Homo erectus fossils have been found widely throughout the region, including the northwestern Lantian Man in Shaanxi, as well minor specimens in northeastern Liaoning and southern Guangdong.[1] The dates of most Paleolithic sites were long debated but have been more reliably established based on modern magnetostratigraphy: Majuangou at 1.66–1.55 Ma, Lanpo at 1.6 Ma, Xiaochangliang at 1.36 Ma, Xiantai at 1.36 Ma, Banshan at 1.32 Ma, Feiliang at 1.2 Ma and Donggutuo at 1.1 Ma.[4] Evidence of fire use by Homo erectus occurred between 1–1.8 million years BP at the archaeological site of Xihoudu, Shanxi Province.[5]

The circumstances surrounding the evolution of Homo erectus to contemporary H. sapiens is debated; the three main theories include the dominant "Out of Africa" theory (OOA), the regional continuity model and the admixture variant of the OOA hypothesis.[1] Regardless, the earliest modern humans have been dated to China at 120,000–80,000 BP based on fossilized teeth discovered in Fuyan Cave of Dao County, Hunan.[6] The larger animals which lived alongside these humans include the extinct Ailuropoda baconi panda, the Crocuta ultima hyena, the Stegodon, and the giant tapir.[6] Evidence of Middle Palaeolithic Levallois technology has been found in the lithic assemblage of Guanyindong Cave site in southwest China, dated to approximately 170,000–80,000 years ago.[7]

Neolithic

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Neolithic
10,000-year-old pottery, Xianren Cave culture (18,000–7000 BC)
Bone Arrowheads, Peiligang culture (7000–5000 BC)
Butterfly-shaped ivory vessel with the pattern of two birds facing the sun, Hemudu culture (5500–3300 BC)
Pottery artifacts from Hemudu culture (5500–3300 BC)

The Neolithic Age in China is considered to have begun about 10,000 years ago.[8] Because the Neolithic is conventionally defined by the presence of agriculture, it follows that the Neolithic began at different times in the various regions of what is now China. Agriculture in China developed gradually, with initial domestication of a few grains and animals gradually expanding with the addition of many others over subsequent millennia.[9] The earliest evidence of cultivated rice, found by the Yangtze River, was carbon-dated to 8,000 years ago.[10] Early evidence for millet agriculture in the Yellow River valley was radiocarbon-dated to about 7000 BC.[11] The Jiahu site is one of the best preserved early agricultural villages (7000 to 5800 BC). At Damaidi in Ningxia, 3,172 cliff carvings dating to 6000–5000 BC have been discovered, "featuring 8,453 individual characters such as the sun, moon, stars, gods and scenes of hunting or grazing", according to researcher Li Xiangshi. Written symbols, sometimes called proto-writing, were found at the site of Jiahu, which is dated around 7000 BC,[12] Damaidi around 6000 BC, Dadiwan from 5800 BC to 5400 BC,[13] and Banpo dating from the 5th millennium BC. With agriculture came increased population, the ability to store and redistribute crops, and the potential to support specialist craftsmen and administrators, which may have existed at late Neolithic sites like Taosi and the Liangzhu culture in the Yangtze delta.[10] The cultures of the middle and late Neolithic in the central Yellow River valley are known, respectively, as the Yangshao culture (5000 BC to 3000 BC) and the Longshan culture (3000 BC to 2000 BC). Pigs and dogs were the earliest-domesticated animals in the region, and after about 3000 BC domesticated cattle and sheep arrived from Western Asia. Wheat also arrived at this time but remained a minor crop. Fruit such as peaches, cherries and oranges, as well as chickens and various vegetables, were also domesticated in Neolithic China.[9]

Bronze Age

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Map of tribes and tribal unions in Ancient China, including the tribes led by the Yellow Emperor, Emperor Yan and Chiyou.

Bronze artifacts have been found at the Majiayao culture site (between 3100 and 2700 BC).[14][15] The Bronze Age is also represented at the Lower Xiajiadian culture (2200–1600 BC)[16] site in northeast China. Sanxingdui located in what is now Sichuan is believed to be the site of a major ancient city, of a previously unknown Bronze Age culture (between 2000 and 1200 BC). The site was first discovered in 1929 and then re-discovered in 1986. Chinese archaeologists have identified the Sanxingdui culture to be part of the state of Shu, linking the artifacts found at the site to its early legendary kings.[17][18] The graves at Mogou revealed a high level of violence in the Qijia culture.[19]

Ferrous metallurgy begins to appear in the late 6th century in the Yangtze valley.[20] A bronze hatchet with a blade of meteoric iron excavated near the city of Gaocheng in Shijiazhuang (now Hebei) has been dated to the 14th century BC. An Iron Age culture of the Tibetan Plateau has tentatively been associated with the Zhang Zhung culture described in early Tibetan writings.

The earliest period once considered historical was the legendary era of the sage-emperors Yao, Shun, and Yu. Traditionally, the abdication system was prominent in this period,[21] with Yao yielding his throne to Shun, who abdicated to Yu, who founded the Xia dynasty.

قديم چين

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شاهي چين

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جديد دور

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وڌيڪ ڏسو

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حوالا

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  1. 1 2 3 4 Wilkinson 2018, p. 737.
  2. ↑ Zhu et al. 2008, pp. 1077, 1084–1085.
  3. ↑ Wu & Lin 1983, p. 92.
  4. ↑ Ao et al. 2013, p. 1.
  5. ↑ James et al. 1989, p. 2.
  6. 1 2 Liu et al. 2015, p. 696.
  7. ↑ Hu et al. 2018, p. 82.
  8. ↑ "Neolithic Period in China". Timeline of Art History. Metropolitan Museum of Art. October 2004. 10 February 2008 تي حاصل ڪيل.
  9. 1 2 Lander, Brian (2021). The King's Harvest: A Political Ecology of China from the First Farmers to the First Empire (انگريزي ۾). Yale University Press.
  10. 1 2 Pringle, Heather (1998). "The Slow Birth of Agriculture". Science 282 (5393): 1446. doi:10.1126/science.282.5393.1446. ISSN 0036-8075. http://cas.bellarmine.edu/tietjen/images/neolithic_agriculture.htm.
  11. ↑ "Rice and Early Agriculture in China". Legacy of Human Civilizations. Mesa Community College. اصل نسخو مان 27 August 2009 تي محفوظ ڪيل. 10 February 2008 تي حاصل ڪيل.
  12. ↑ Rincon, Paul (17 April 2003). "'Earliest writing' found in China". BBC News.
  13. ↑ Qiu Xigui (2000). Chinese Writing. English translation of 文字學概論 by Gilbert L. Mattos and Jerry Norman. Early China Special Monograph Series No. 4. Berkeley: The Society for the Study of Early China and the Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley. ISBN 978-1-55729-071-7
  14. ↑ Mo, Duowen; Zhao, Zhijun; Xu, Junjie; Li, Minglin (2010). "Holocene Environmental Changes and the Evolution of the Neolithic Cultures in China". ۾ Martini, I. Peter; Chesworth, Ward (مرتب). Landscapes and Societies: Selected Cases. Springer. ص. 310. doi:10.1007/978-90-481-9413-1_19. ISBN 978-90-481-9412-4.
  15. ↑ Higham, Charles (2004). Encyclopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations. Infobase. ص. 200. ISBN 0-8160-4640-9.
  16. ↑ Shelach, Gideon (2002). Leadership Strategies, Economic Activity, and Interregional Interaction: Social Complexity in Northeast China. Springer. ص. 89. doi:10.1007/0-306-47164-7_5. ISBN 978-0-306-47164-3.
  17. ↑ Bagley 1999, p. 135.
  18. ↑ Rawson, Jessica. "New discoveries from the early dynasties". Times Higher Education. 3 October 2013 تي حاصل ڪيل.
  19. ↑ Dittmar, J. M.; Berger, E.; Zhan, X.; Mao, R.; Wang, H.; Yeh, H. Y. (December 2019). "Skeletal evidence for violent trauma from the bronze age Qijia culture (2,300-1,500 BCE), Gansu Province, China". International Journal of Paleopathology 27: 66–79. doi:10.1016/j.ijpp.2019.08.002. PMID 31606648. Bibcode: 2019IJPal..27...66D.
  20. ↑ Higham, Charles (1996). The Bronze Age of Southeast Asia. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521565057.[صفحو گهربل]
  21. ↑ Pines, Yuri (2005). "Disputers of Abdication: Zhanguo egalitarianism and the sovereign's power". T'oung Pao 91 (4/5): 243–300. doi:10.1163/156853205774910098.

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