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Western painting

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The history of Western painting represents a painting tradition in Western art from antiquity until the present time.[1]

Initially serving imperial, private, civic, and religious patronage, Western painting later found audiences in the aristocracy and the middle class. From the Middle Ages through the Renaissance painters worked for the church and a wealthy aristocracy. Western painting advanced significantly during the Renaissance, in conjunction with the refinement of drawing, use of perspective, ambitious architecture, tapestry, stained glass, sculpture, and the period before and after the advent of the printing press.

Beginning with the Baroque era artists received private commissions from a more educated and prosperous middle class. The idea of "art for art's sake" began to find expression in the work of the Romantic painters.

Until the mid-19th century, Western painting was primarily concerned with representational and traditional modes of production, after which time more modern, abstract and conceptual forms gained favor. During the 19th century, commercial galleries became established and continued to provide patronage into the 20th century and the era of contemporary art.

Pre-history

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The history of Western painting traces back to cave paintings in France and northern Spain from pre-historic artists in the Stone Age, with the oldest dated to some 30,000 years old.[6] They are painted using red ochre and black pigment, including dots and stenciled hands, as well as various animals, human-animal hybrids, and hunting scenes.[3]

Greece and Rome

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Bronze Age Aegean Civilizations

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Minoan

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Prince of the Lilies fresco, Knossos, (Heraklion Archaeological Museum)

Minoan painting was produced by the ancient Aegean, Bronze Age Minoan civilization from about 3000 to 1100 BC.[a] Its pottery, and palace walls have the best-preserved examples, with frescos displaying "the earliest pure landscapes anywhere",[8] such as at Knossos and Akrotiri, buried by the Theran eruption (c. 1600 BC).[9][b]

Minoan painting was influenced by nearby Ancient Egypt and the Near East, which had long produced sophisticated paintings.[11] Yet the mysterious character of the small, yet wealthy mercantile Minoan cities seems very different, with little evidence of large temple-based religion, monarchs, or warfare, and "all the imaginative power and childlike freshness of a very young culture".[12][c] Sinclair Hood (1917–2021) described an "essential quality of the finest Minoan art, the ability to create an atmosphere of movement and life although following a set of highly formal conventions".[13]

Mycenaean

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The Minoans clearly dominated Mycenaean art and Cycladic art of the same periods,[15] even after Crete was occupied by the Mycenaeans; but only some aspects of the tradition survived the Trojan War and Greek Dark Ages, after the collapse of Mycenaean Greece.[16]

Classical Antiquity

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Ancient Greece

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Pitsa panels, the only surviving Ancient Greek panel paintings from Greece proper. They are votive tablets or pinax. (Archaic, c. 540–530 BC, National Archaeological Museum, Athens (NAMA))

After the Greek Dark Ages and legendary Dorian invasion, ancient Greeks in classical antiquity made remarkable contributions to painting, including innovations in perspective derived from scenography,[17][18] contrasting with the composite or "mixed" perspective of ancient Egyptian and Minoan painting — faces and legs presented in profile, while eyes and torsos appear frontally.[19][20]

Ancient Greek art is divided into Archaic (c. 800–480 BC), Classical (c. 480–323 BC), and Hellenistic (c. 323–30 AD).[21] Ancient Greek painting includes polychromy on pagan temples, sculpture, and figurines; as well as wall, panel, and vase painting, on pottery and ceramics, such as geometric, orientalizing, black-figure, red-figure, and white-ground, giving glimpses of ancient Greek society. Mosaics also provide insight into ancient painting.[22]

Most ancient Greek painters are known only from texts. There are only few examples of wall paintings, such as those preserved in tombs and funerary art.[23][24] Only a single example of ancient Greek panel painting from Greece proper survives, with a few others from Egypt.[25][26]

5th century BC Greek painters include skiagraphia innovator Apollodorus, Micon, Panaenus, and Polygnotus.[d] Micon's daughter was Timarete.[28] According to Plutarch, Polygnotos was the lover of Elpinice, and regularly worked for free.[29] He was more a draughtsman than the following generation of colorists.[30]

Apollodorus influenced Zeuxis, who took his advances to new heights.[31][32][33] According to Cicero (106 BC–43 BC),[34] when Zeuxis could not find a woman beautiful enough to pose as Helen of Troy, he selected the finest features of five different models from Croton to create a composite image of ideal beauty.[35]

Obverse side, gathering around Heracles, crowned with laurel wreath, wearing the lion-skin and holding a club and bow.
Reverse side, massacre of the Niobids by Artemis and Apollo
Red-figure Niobid Krater, showing intricate perspective and poses, name vase of Niobid Painter. (Classical, c. 460 BC, Louvre)

According to Pliny the Elder (c. 24–79 AD), birds pecked at Zeuxis's realistically painted grapes. Parrhasius in turn painted a realistic curtain, which Zeuxis asked to be lifted to see the image, only to discover it was the image.[36]

The painter Pamphilus taught Apelles (fl. 4th century BC), described as the greatest painter of antiquity, noted for perfect technique in all aspects of painting, and especially perspective.[37] Pyrrhonist philosopher Sextus Empiricus (fl.  2nd century AD) likened ataraxia to Apelles's attempt to paint a horse foaming at the mouth. Apelles was at first so unsuccessful that he gave up, and, in a rage, threw the sponge he was using to clean his paintbrushes; and its mark on the panel produced the desired effect of foam.[38]

Aristides of Thebes (fl. 4th century BC) taught his son Ariston and Nicomachus of Thebes, known for his rapid painting.[39][40] Philoxenus of Eretria was Nicomachus's disciple.[40]

More examples of ancient Greek vase painting survive, including artists such as Exekias, Douris, and several unidentified artists given "notnames" by scholars such as John Beazley (1885–1970), like the Amasis Painter, Berlin Painter, Brygos Painter, Niobid Painter, and Painter of the Wedding Procession.[41][42][43]

Etruscans

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The Etruscans were heavily influenced by the Greeks, painting colorful polychromy, wall, and vase paintings. Almost all surviving Etruscan wall paintings are in tombs, mainly located in Tarquinia.[44]

Ancient Rome

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A maenad dancing and another Dionysian Mysteries initiate about to be scourged. Pompeii, Villa of the Mysteries (c. 55 BC)

Roman painting was influenced by Etruscan and Greek painting, shown in both frescoes and mosaics, but with its own unique characteristics, containing some of the first examples of trompe-l'œil, and more realistic landscapes.[45][52] Gaius Fabius Pictor (fl. 304 BC) is traditionally the first Roman painter.[e] The Romans conquered the Etruscans (c. 265 BC), and conquered Greece after the Achaean War (146 BC).[54] They conquered Ptolemaic Egypt following the Battle of Actium (31 BC).[55]

Surviving examples of Roman painting are divided into four styles and include wall, panel, and vase paintings, many from villas, especially those in Campania, in Southern Italy, at sites buried by the 79 AD eruption of Mount Vesuvius, such as Boscoreale, Boscotrecase, Herculaneum, and Pompeii.[56][57]

Some of the few surviving, ancient, painted portraits are several coffin-portraits found in the Egyptian cemetery of Al-Fayum.[58] Few miniatures from Late Antique illustrated books survive; more copies of them are found from the early medieval period.[59][60]

Middle Ages

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Byzantine art

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Christ Pantocrator from Sinai, Byzantine icon, 6th century

The fall of Rome (5th Century AD) and rise of Christianity imparted a different spirit and aim to medieval painters, who worked for the church, and a wealthy aristocracy.[61] Byzantine art spans the whole era of the Byzantine Empire (330–1453),[62] emphasizing traditional iconography and painted in a severe, grave and sacred heiratic style.[63][64][65] Medieval Greek and Russian Orthodox icon-painting such as by Andrei Rublev (c. 1360–c. 1430) represents divine revelation up to the present day.[66]

Byzantine art is also known for its flatness and highly stylised depictions of figures and landscape.[62] However, some periods of Byzantine painting appear less flat and more flexible, especially 10th-century Macedonian art.[67][68] There were many frescoes, but fewer have survived than mosaics.[62] The best preserved frescoes are from the final period of Byzantine art, known as the Palaeologan Renaissance.[69]

Insular, Carolingian, and Ottonian painting

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In medieval, Catholic Europe, the first distinctive, painting style was the Insular art of the British Isles, surviving only in miniatures from Illuminated manuscripts,[70] best known for their abstract decoration and Evangelist portraits.[71][72]

Influenced by classical, Byzantine, and Insular art, Carolingian paintings of the Carolingian Renaissance during the reign of Charlemagne (748–814) and his heirs, and Ottonian paintings of the Ottonian Renaissance during the Ottonian dynasty (919–1024), are sometimes known as "pre-Romanesque".[73] They survive mostly in manuscripts, although some of several documented wall paintings remain.[74] Archbishop of Trier Egbert (c. 950–993) was a notable patron of paintings.[75]

High Middle Ages

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The High Middle Ages and 12th-century renaissance birthed similarly influenced Romanesque and Gothic art, first introduced in Milan. Church walls were decorated with frescoes, sculpture, and windows using colorful stained glass.[76] Many of the few remaining murals, such as those by the Master of Taüll, share themes of Insular art.[77] Far more miniatures in Illuminated manuscripts survive from the period.[78]

Giotto, Scrovegni Chapel in Padua, c. 1305

Panel painting becomes more common during the Romanesque period, under the heavy influence of Byzantine icons, such as from Italians like Berlinghiero (fl. 1228–1242), father of Barone (fl. 1228–1282), Bonaventura (fl. 1235–1244), and Marco (fl. 1232–1255).[79]

Proto-Renaissance

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Italian Medieval and Gothic painting became more realistic with Byzantine-influenced Florentine Cimabue (c. 1240–1302) and his pupil Giotto (c. 1267–1337), the two great medieval masters of naturalistic Western painting.[80][81]

Giotto advanced Cimabue's innovations to a higher level, setting the foundation for the western painting tradition. From Giotto on, painters' treatment of composition became much more free and innovative, depicting volume and perspective.[82][83]

According to Lives of the Artists (1550), Florentine Andrea Pisano (1290–1348) taught Andrea Orcagna (c. 1308–1368).[84] Orcagna was influenced by Giotto,[85][86] and taught Andrea di Boniauto (1319–1377). Giotto also influenced Stefano Fiorentino (1301–1350), father of Giottino (fl. 1324–1369).[87]

Sienese School and International Gothic

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Byzantine art influenced the Sienese school led by Duccio (c. 1260–1319) and his pupil Simone Martini (c. 1284–1344), who influenced International Gothic, the dominant style in Italy c. 1415,[88] which saw tempera panel paintings and altarpieces gain importance.[89][90] The Sienese School also included the naturalism of brothers Ambrogio (c. 1290–1348) and Pietro Lorenzetti (c. 1280–1348), plus Bartolomeo Bulgarini (c. 1300–1378).[91]

Parisian illuminator Jean Pucelle (c. 1300–1355) also influenced International Gothic painters, such as Colart de Laon (c. 1355–1417), court painter and valet de chambre to Louis I (1372–1407) and Charles I (1394–1465), Dukes of Orléans.[92][93]

Bologna

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Bologna also featured painters such as Vitale da Bologna (c. 1309–1360).[94] Vitale influenced his successor Andrea da Bologna and Simone dei Crocifissi (c. 1330–1399), whose nephew was Lippo di Dalmasio (1352–c. 1410).[95]

Early modern period

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Renaissance

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Masaccio, Expulsion from the Garden of Eden 1426–1427

The Renaissance (French for 'rebirth', c. 1345–1600) was a cultural movement driven by humanism and the study of classical antiquity, leading to a revolution in science (e. g. geography, astronomy), philosophy (e. g. the Reformation), and technology (e. g. printing press) influencing painting, which advanced significantly, in conjunction with the refinement of drawing, use of perspective, ambitious architecture, tapestry, stained glass, and sculpture.[96][97][98]

With the development of easel painting in the Renaissance, painting gained independence from architecture and could be hung easily on walls, a popular alternative to paintings fixed to furniture, walls or other structures.[99][100]

Renaissance painters continued to work for the church and a wealthy aristocracy.[61] However, while religious imagery was still popular, secular subject matter returned to Western painting during the Renaissance.[101] Artists included visions of the world around them, or the products of their own imaginations in their paintings. Those who could afford the expense could become patrons and commission portraits of themselves or their family.[101]

Italian Renaissance

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Early

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Italian Renaissance painting emphasized the ideal, and narrative painting.[102][103] Florentine Masaccio (1401–1428) was the first painter utilizing advances in linear perspective from On Painting (1450) author Leon Battista Alberti (1404–1472), architect Brunelleschi (1377–1446), and sculptor Donatello (c. 1386–1466).[104][105]

The Early Renaissance (c. 1400–1495) includes painters such as architect Donato Bramante (1444–1514), Paolo Uccello (1397–1475), Fra Angelico (c. 1395–1455), Piero della Francesca (c. 1415–1492), Andrea Mantegna (c. 1431–1506), Filippo Lippi (c. 1406–1469), and Sandro Botticelli (c. 1445–1510).[106]

High

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Leonardo da Vinci, Mona Lisa 1503–1506

During the High Renaissance (c. 1495–1520), Florentines such as sfumato pioneer Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519), and Neoplatonists Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475–1564) and Raphael (1483–1520), took painting to new heights by developing perspective, the study of human anatomy and proportion, and unprecedented refinement in drawing and painting techniques.[107][108] Other High Renaissance painters include Parma chiaroscuro master Correggio (1489–1534).[109]

Venetian School
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Venetian Renaissance painting developed a more naturalistic style, less concerned with precision in their drawing, than with the richness of color and unity of effect achieved by painting spontaneously.[110] They include Jacopo (c. 1400–c. 1470), Gentile (c. 1429–1507), and Giovanni Bellini (c. 1430–1516), and Jacopo's son-in-law Andrea Mantegna (c. 1431–1506), musician Giorgione (c. 1475–1510), Titian (c. 1490–1576), and Veronese (1528–1588).[111][110]

Mannerism
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Parmigianino, Madonna with the Long Neck c. 1535

After 1520, the Italian High Renaissance gave rise to a stylized art known as Mannerism.[113] Lives of the Artists author Giorgio Vasari (1511–1574) was a Mannerist.[114] Mannerist Parmigianino (1503–1540) was one of several artists who had to flee the Sack of Rome (1527).[112]

Mannerism is characterized by long necks and limbs.[113] In place of the balanced compositions and rational perspective characterizing art at the dawn of the 16th century, the Mannerists sought instability, artifice, and doubt. The calm and serene expressions of Renaissance subjects are replaced by the troubled expressions of Pontormo (1494–1557) and the emotional intensity of El Greco (1541–1614).[113] Restless and unstable compositions, often extreme effects of perspective, and stylized poses are characteristic of Italian Mannerists such as Pontormo, Tintoretto (1518–1594), and Bronzino (1503–1572).[115]

The Northern Mannerists included Antwerp Mannerists Herri met de Bles (c. 1490–1567), Jan Wellens de Cock (c. 1460–c. 1520), Jan Gossart (1478–1532), and Bartholomeus Spranger (1546–1611); and Dutchmen Cornelis Engebrechtsz (c. 1462–1527), Hendrick Goltzius (1558–1617), Jan Gossaert (c. 1478–1532), Lucas van Leyden (1494–1534), and Joachim Wtewael (1566–1638).[116]

Northern Renaissance

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In Flanders, following developments made in the illumination of manuscripts, especially by the Limbourg Brothers (fl. 1385–1416), artists became fascinated by the tangible in the visible world and began representing objects in an extremely naturalistic way.[117]

Early Netherlandish painting

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Jan van Eyck, Arnolfini Portrait, 1434

Unlike the Italians, who drew heavily from ancient Rome, the Northern Renaissance painters retained the less idealized style of sculpture and naturalistic, illuminated manuscripts of the Middle Ages.[119] The adoption of oil painting, whose first use was traditionally, but erroneously, credited to Jan van Eyck (c. 1389–1441), made possible a new verisimilitude.[120]

Oil paint was already present in the work of Melchior Broederlam (c. 1350–1409),[121] but Robert Campin (c. 1378–1444, previously known as the Master of Flémalle) and van Eyck brought its use to new heights, creating richer colors with a deep, intense tonality.[120] The illusion of glowing light with a porcelain-like finish characterized Early Netherlandish painting, in contrast to the matte surface of tempera.[117] Art historians Max J. Friedländer (1867–1958) and iconographer Erwin Panofsky (1892–1968) were scholars of Early Netherlandish painting.[119]

Campin's pupil Rogier van der Weyden (1400–1464) stressed human emotion and drama.[118] The work of Hieronymus Bosch (c. 1450–1516) is remarkably extravagant.[122] Other important artists were Hugo van der Goes (c. 1430–1482), highly influential in Italy,[123] Dieric Bouts (c. 1415–1475), among the first northern painters to utilize a single vanishing point,[117] Petrus Christus (c. 1420–c. 1475), Hans Memling (c. 1430–1494) and Gerard David (c. 1460–1523).[124]

High

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Hans Holbein the Younger, The Ambassadors, 1533

Flemish, Dutch and German painters of the Northern High Renaissance such as printmaker Albrecht Dürer (1471–1528), Lucas Cranach (c. 1472–1553), Matthias Grünewald (c. 1470–1528), and Hans Holbein the Younger (c. 1497–1543) incorporated the features of Italian art.[125][126][127]

A generation later, the start of large genre paintings began with Peter Aertsen (1508–1575) and world landscape artist Pieter Bruegel (c. 1525–1569).[126] A later generation of Northern Renaissance painters who traveled to Rome and adopted much of the idealized approach of the Italian Renaissance became known as Romanists.[128]

Baroque

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Baroque was the dominant style of painting by 17th-century Old Masters, whose works are held in such museums as Amsterdam's Rijksmuseum and Munich's Alte Pinakothek.[129] Baroque painting is characterized by great drama, rich, deep color, and chiaroscuro, evoking emotion and passion instead of the calm rationality prized during the Renaissance.[130]

Its associated movement often identified with Absolutism and the Counter Reformation or Catholic Revival.[131][132] However, Baroque painting in non-absolutist and Protestant states also shows its popularity, as the style spread throughout Western Europe.[133] Beginning with the Baroque era, artists received private commissions from a more educated and prosperous middle class.[134]

Italian

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Caravaggio, The Calling of St. Matthew

The earliest Baroque painters, of the late 16th century, include Federico Barocci (c. 1535–1612), the Carracci brothers, Annibale (1560–1609) and Agostino (1557–1602), and Caravaggio (1571–1610).[135]

Caravaggio was a master of chiaroscuro and an heir of the humanist painting of the High Renaissance, displaying a realistic approach to the human figure, painted directly from life.[135] His new style of painting shocked contemporaries like Giovanni Pietro Bellori (1613–1696), author of another Lives of the Artists (1672).[135]

Caravaggio influenced subsequent Italian Baroque, including religious and mythological painters, such as Artemisia Gentileschi (1593–1654), Guido Reni (1575–1642), Guercino (1591–1666), and Luca Giordano (1634–1705).[136] Illusionistic church ceiling frescoes using quadratura by Pietro da Cortona (1596–1669) seemed to open to the sky.[137] The landscapes and history paintings of Salvator Rosa (1615–1673), often set in dark and untamed nature, exerted considerable influence.[138] Canaletto (1697–1768) painted cityscapes or vedute, of Venice, Rome, and London, and imaginary views (capricci).[139] Orientalist Giovanni Antonio Guardi (1699–1760) was a founder of the Venetian Academy.[140][141]

Flemish

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Barocci abandoned Mannerism and influenced Flemish Peter Paul Rubens (1577–1640).[142] Flemish Baroque painting of the Southern Netherlands was focused in Antwerp, with the dramatic and crowded paintings of Rubens, Anthony van Dyck (1599–1641), and Jacob Jordaens (1593–1678).[143][144]

Dutch

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Johannes Vermeer's Girl with a Pearl Earring (1665–1667)

The Dutch Baroque painting of the Dutch Republic, often referred to as Dutch Golden Age Painting, is a more reserved Baroque found in painters such as Pieter Codde (1599–1678), Willem Cornelisz Duyster (1599–1635), Judith Leyster (1609–1660), Rembrandt van Rijn (1606–1669), Frans Hals (c. 1582–1666), Jan Steen (c. 1626–1679), Jacob van Ruisdael (c. 1629–1682), and Johannes Vermeer (1632–1675).[145][146][147]

Easel paintings of everyday subjects were popular with middle-class collectors, and many painters became specialists in genre, others in landscape, or still life.[148] However, Rembrandt excelled in painting every type of subject.[149] Art and vision historian Heinrich Wölfflin (1864–1945) argued Rembrandt exemplified the painterly style, as opposed to linear.[150] Rembrandt and the Utrecht Caravaggists such as Hendrick ter Brugghen (1588–1629) both use chiaroscuro.[151] Rembrandt's teachers were Leiden's Jacob Isaacsz. van Swanenburg (1571–1638) and Amsterdam's Pieter Lastman (1583–1633).[152]

Vermeer, Gerard ter Borch (1617–1681), and Pieter de Hooch (1629–1679) brought great technical refinement to painting domestic scenes, as did Abraham van Beyeren (c. 1620–1690), Pieter Claesz (c. 1597–1660), and Willem Claesz. Heda (1594–c. 1680) to still life.[148] Vermeer's proficient technique has artists debate whether he used a camera obscura.[153]

German

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German Baroque was limited by the devastation of the Thirty Years War (1618–1648), but still saw Italian influenced painters such as Hans Rottenhammer (1564–1625), Adam Elsheimer (1578–1610), Johann Heinrich Schönfeld (1609–1684), Johann Liss (c. 1590–1630), Johann Carl Loth (1632–1698), and Joachim von Sandrart (1606–1688).[154]

French

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Nicolas Poussin, Et in Arcadia Ego, 1638

France in the early modern period became the cultural center of Europe, especially under the reign of "Sun King" Louis XIV (1638–1715), and the preceding Louis XIII (1601–1643).[155] Louis XIV's court painters include Charles Le Brun (1619–1690) and Hyacinthe Rigaud (1659–1743).[156] 1667 saw the first Paris Salon art exhibition, of the Académie royale de peinture et de sculpture.[157]

Painters like Le Brun who preferred outline and drawing were called Poussinists, followers of "classical" Baroque Nicolas Poussin (1594–1665),[158] and those who emphasized color were called Rubenists, followers of Rubens.[159] Additional French baroque painters include the Le Nain brothers, Antoine (c. 1600–1648), Louis (c. 1603–1648), and Mathieu (1607–1677), Georges de La Tour (1593–1652), and landscape painter Claude Lorrain (c. 1600–1682).[160] Frenchmen trained in Italy such as Poussin, La Tour, and Lorrain are known as "classical Baroque".[161]

Spanish

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Spanish Baroque painting includes Diego Velázquez (1599–1660), Jusepe de Ribera (1591–1652), Francisco de Zurbarán (1598–1664), and Bartolomé Esteban Murillo (1617–1682). Spanish Baroque was influenced by still life, and advanced realism and Catholic decorum, in response to Mannerist distortions and idealization of beauty in excess.[162]

Rococo

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The Swing by Fragonard, c. 1767–1768

Rococo painting followed as a lighter form of Baroque, reaching its height in the 1730s.[163][164] Often frivolous and erotic with light pastel colours, Rococo developed first in French decorative arts and interior design, when Louis XV's (1710–1774) succession changed court artists and artistic fashion.[165][166] Rococo maintained Baroque's taste for complex forms and intricate patterns, but also included a taste for Oriental designs and asymmetry.[167]

The French masters Jean-Antoine Watteau (1684–1721), François Boucher (1703–1773), and Jean-Honoré Fragonard (1732–1806) represent the style, as do Italians Giovanni Battista Piazzetta (1682–1754), Giovanni Battista Tiepolo (1696–1770), and pastel painter Rosalba Carriera (1673–1757).[168] Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin (1699–1779) is considered by some as Anti-Rococo,[169] and also one of the best 18th-century French painters.[170]

French Rococo also includes Jean-Baptiste Greuze (1725–1805),[171] who excelled in portraits and history paintings, and was the favorite painter of philosophe Denis Diderot (1713–1784).[172][173] Pastel painter Maurice Quentin de La Tour (1704–1788), and Élisabeth Vigée-Lebrun (1755–1842) were highly accomplished portrait painters.[174]

The Rococo style spread to Catholic parts of Germany, Bohemia, and Austria, merging with German Baroque traditions.[175] German Rococo was applied with enthusiasm to churches and palaces, particularly in Southern Germany, while Frederician Rococo developed in the Kingdom of Prussia.[176] German Rococo painters include Johann Baptist Zimmermann (1680–1758).[175]

English portrait artist William Hogarth (1697–1764) helped develop a theoretical foundation for Rococo beauty. Though not intentionally referencing the movement, he argued in Analysis of Beauty (1753) that undulating lines and S-curves, prominent in Rococo, were the basis for grace and beauty in art or nature, unlike the straight line or the circle in Classicism.[177][178] The decline of Rococo started in the early 1760s as figures like Voltaire (1694–1778) and Jacques-François Blondel (1705–1774) criticized its superficiality and degeneracy. Blondel decried the "ridiculous jumble of shells, dragons, reeds, palm-trees and plants" in contemporary interiors.[179]

English portraiture

[edit]

Artists such as Vigée-Lebrun focused on portraiture and were seen as transitional figures exiting the Rococo movement.[180] While portraiture was an important component of contemporaneous Western painting, after Rococo it became the focus of a movement in England, led by blunt realist Hogarth and Francis Hayman (1708–1776), Swiss Angelica Kauffman (1741–1807), Thomas Gainsborough (1727–1788), and Joshua Reynolds (1723–1792), in the Grand Manner,[181] influenced by Flemish expat van Dyck.[177]

Neoclassicism

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Jacques-Louis David, Oath of the Horatii, 1784

By 1785, Rococo had passed out of fashion in France, replaced first in architecture, and then in painting, by the severe order and seriousness of Neoclassical artists such as Jacques-Louis David (1748–1825), whose monumental history paintings supported the ideals of the French Revolution,[182][183] and François-André Vincent (1746–1816).[184] The preceding American Revolution also saw its share of Neoclassical painters, such as Benjamin West (1738–1820) and John Singleton Copley (1738–1815).[185] Neoclassicists in Germany include Anton Raphael Mengs (1728–1779), arguably the first.[186]

David's heirs were Antoine-Jean Gros (1771–1835) and Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres (1780–1867).[187]

19th century

[edit]

Both the Académie des Beaux-Arts and École des Beaux-Arts were founded in 1816.[188] By the mid-19th century, painting became more purely a means of personal expression, rather than limited to depicting representational and traditional scenes from religion, mythology, portraiture or history. Modern, abstract and conceptual art forms gained favor.[189] During the 19th century, commercial galleries became established and provided patronage.[190][191]

Romanticism

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Francisco Goya, 3rd of May 1814

Ingres' work already contains much of the sensuality, but none of the spontaneity, that was to characterize Romanticism. The Romantics turned landscape painting into a major genre, considered until then as a minor genre or as a decorative background. Romantic painters include Russians Karl Brullov (1799–1852) and marine art master Ivan Aivazovsky (1817–1900), Englishmen John Constable (1776–1837) and marine art and landscape master J. M. W. Turner (1775–1851), Frenchmen Eugène Delacroix (1798–1863) and Théodore Géricault (1791–1824), German Caspar David Friedrich (1774–1840), and Spaniard Francisco de Goya (1684–1721), whose late work demonstrates the Romantic interest in the irrational.[192][193]

Romantic painters influenced the English Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood's combination of devotion to nature with nostalgia for medieval culture, and Aesthetic movement tonalist James Abbott McNeill Whistler (1834–1903) with his sophistication, decadence, and belief in "art for art's sake".[194][195]

American Romantic landscape painters were known as the Hudson River School: including Thomas Cole (1801–1848), Frederic Edwin Church (1826–1900), Albert Bierstadt (1830–1902), Thomas Moran (1837–1926), and John Frederick Kensett (1816–1872).[196] Luminism was a related movement.[197]

Realism

[edit]

A major force in the turn towards Realism at mid-century was Gustave Courbet (1819–1877), whose unidealized paintings of common people offended viewers accustomed to the conventional subject matter and licked finish of academic art, but inspired many younger artists.[145]

The leading Barbizon School painter Jean-François Millet (1814–1875) painted landscapes and scenes of peasant life.[198] Barbizon School associate Camille Corot (1796–1875) painted landscapes, such as of the Fontainebleau Forest, vigorously and precisely.[198] Ilya Repin (1844–1930) was a Russian realist.[199]

In Germany, the Munich school painters, of its Academy of Fine Arts, were influenced by Courbet, such as Franz Defregger (1835–1921), Wilhelm Leibl (1844–1900), Franz von Lenbach (1836–1904), and Wilhelm Trübner (1851–1917), painting naturalistic scenes utilizing chiaroscuro.[200] The Munich School had a wide influence across Western painting, including Americans, such as Frank Duveneck (1848–1919) and William Merritt Chase (1849–1916); and Greeks, such as Nikiforos Lytras (1832–1904) and Nikolaos Gyzis (1842–1901).[201][202]

American realism

[edit]

American painting saw a native realism deeply invested in the solidity of natural forms, including portrait and landscape painter John Singer Sargent (1856–1925), Thomas Eakins (1775–1851), the Ashcan School, and the landscapes and seascapes of Winslow Homer (1836–1910).[203][204][205] The visionary landscape, a motif largely dependent on the nocturne, found its advocates in Albert Pinkham Ryder (1847–1917) and Ralph Albert Blakelock (1847–1917).[206]

Impressionism

[edit]
Monet, Water Lilies and Japanese Bridge, 1899, one of a series of monumental works of Water Lilies painted in Giverny.

The Barbizon School prefigured Impressionism, as did Dutchman Johan Jongkind (1819–1891), and Eugène Boudin (1824–1898), one of the first French landscape painters to paint en plein air.[209]

In the late 19th century, Impressionists such as Claude Monet (1840–1926), Édouard Manet (1832–1888), Pierre-Auguste Renoir (1841–1919), Camille Pissarro (1830–1903), Alfred Sisley (1839–1899), Berthe Morisot (1841–1895), Mary Cassatt (1844–1926), and Edgar Degas (1834–1917) worked in a more direct approach, eschewing allegory and narrative in favor of individualized responses to the modern world, sometimes painted with little or no preparatory study, relying on deftness of drawing and a highly chromatic palette.[207][210]

Boudin influenced Monet, Pissarro, and Sisley to paint landscapes en plein air together, with the transience of light and weather playing a major role in their work.[209][211] By painting in direct sunlight and making bold use of the vivid, synthetic pigments available since the beginning of the century, they developed a lighter and brighter manner of painting.[212][213] Money and later Sisley sought challenges in increasingly chromatic and changeable conditions.[214][215]

Manet, Degas, Renoir, Morisot, and Cassatt concentrated primarily on the human subject. Both Manet and Degas seem to embrace industrialization and urbanization, painting more realistically, and reinterpreting classical figurative canons, with Manet's meeting with hostile public reception.[207][216] Degas is best known for painting ballet dancers.[217] Renoir, Morisot, and Cassatt turned to domestic life for inspiration; Renoir painted several female nudes.[218]

Russian impressionists include Valentin Serov (1865–1911). American Impressionists included Childe Hassam (1859–1935), John Henry Twachtman (1853–1902), and Theodore Robinson (1852–1896).[219][220] Impressionism also exerted influence on non-impressionist painters, such as Sargent.[203]

The Heidelberg School is also known as Australian impressionism, including painters like Tom Roberts (1856–1931), Charles Conder (1868–1909), and Frederick McCubbin (1855–1917).[221]

Post-Impressionism

[edit]
The Starry Night, Vincent van Gogh, 1889

Post-Impressionists of Belle Époque Paris such as Paul Cézanne (1839–1906), Vincent van Gogh (1853–1890), Paul Gauguin (1848–1903), Émile Bernard (1868–1941), landscape artist Pierre Laprade (1875–1931), naïve painter or primitivist Henri Rousseau (1844–1910), Synthetist and Cloisonnist Paul Sérusier (1864–1927), brothel frequenter Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec (1864–1901), and divisionist and pointillist Georges-Pierre Seurat (1859–1891), are seen as precursors of 20th-century modernism.[222][223] Belgian Eugène Boch (1855–1941) was the brother of Anna Boch (1848–1936), the only female member of Les XX.[224]

Cézanne united classical composition and a preoccupation with abstract geometric forms,[225] claiming all depiction of nature can be reduced to solids: cylinder, sphere, and cone.[226] while Van Gogh's turbulent method of paint application was coupled with a sonorous use of color.[227] Seurat transformed Impressionism's broken color into a scientific optical study, structured on frieze-like compositions, attracting many followers such as Paul Signac (1863–1935).[228]

Artists such as Whistler, Gauguin, and Toulouse-Lautrec were influenced by Japanese ukiyo-e.[229] For Gauguin, Impressionism gave way to a personal symbolism.[230] Gauguin influenced future art when in 1888 he said to Sérusier

How do you see these trees? Well then, put down yellow. And that shadow is rather blue. So, render it with pure ultramarine. Those red leaves? Use vermilion.[231]

Symbolism

[edit]
Edvard Munch, The Scream, 1893, symbolism and early expressionism

In the late 19th century there also were several, rather dissimilar, groups of symbolist painters. Among them were the mysterious, Romanticism influenced Swiss Arnold Böcklin (1827–1901) and parallelist Ferdinand Hodler (1853–1918), Frenchmen Gustave Moreau (1826–1898), Odilon Redon (1840–1916), Pierre Puvis de Chavannes (1824–1898), and Henri Fantin-Latour (1836–1904), German Franz von Stuck (1863–1928), Belgian Les XX member Félicien Rops (1833–1898), Dutchman Jan Toorop (1858–1928), Austrian Gustav Klimt (1862–1918), Norwegian Edvard Munch (1863–1944), and Russian Mikhail Vrubel (1856–1910).[232][233]

Symbolist painters mined mythology and dream imagery to dissect the soul,[232][234] seeking evocative paintings bringing to mind a static world of silence.[235] The symbols used in Symbolism are not the familiar emblems of mainstream iconography but intensely personal, private, obscure and ambiguous references.[232] More a philosophy than just an art style, Symbolist painters such as Pierre Bonnard (1867–1947) and Édouard Vuillard (1868–1940) influenced the contemporary Art Nouveau movement and Sérusier-influenced, avant-garde Les Nabis.[236] Bonnard and Vuillard pioneered Intimism after the 1899 disbandment of Les Nabis.[237][238]

20th century

[edit]

20th century western painting influenced all the visual arts, from modernist architecture and design, to avant-garde film, theatre and modern dance; and became an experimental visual laboratory, from photography and concrete poetry to advertising art and fashion. Post-impressionism and Symbolism resonated with younger artists of the 20th century, especially with the Fauvists and Surrealists.[232]

Fauvism

[edit]
Henri Matisse, The Green Stripe, Fauvism, 1905, caused a sensation in Paris when it was first exhibited.

At the beginning of the 20th century, Henri Matisse (1869–1954) and André Derain (1880–1954),[f] along with several other artists including Georges Braque (1882–1963), Charles Camoin (1879–1965), Raoul Dufy (1877–1953), Albert Marquet (1875–1947), Dutchman Kees van Dongen (1877–1968), and Maurice de Vlaminck (1876–1958) revolutionized the Paris art world with "wild", colorful, expressive landscapes and figure paintings that its critics called Fauvism after the 1905 Salon d'Automne.[240][g] Fauvism emphasized saturated, unnatural colors and painterly qualities like powerful brushstrokes,[245] but had no concrete theories, and was short lived, no longer a shocking movement by 1907.[h]

Cubism

[edit]
Pablo Picasso, early Cubism, Les Demoiselles d'Avignon (1907), a radical picture depicting five, violently painted prostitutes.

Pablo Picasso (1881–1973), often contrasted with Matisse, made his first Cubist paintings, influenced by Cézanne, and Bernard, who added cubes to Cézanne's conception.[226] Picasso's style is reminiscent of African tribal masks; and his own Cubist inventions. Braque and Picasso jointly developed Cubism from about 1908 through 1912, influencing several subsequent art movements.[248] Picasso supported the revolutionaries during the Spanish Civil War.[249]

Cubism includes Jean Metzinger (1883–1956), Albert Gleizes (1881–1953), Fernand Léger (1881–1973), Henri Le Fauconnier (1881–1946), and Robert Delaunay (1885–1941). Juan Gris (1887–1927), Marcel Duchamp (1887–1968), Alexander Archipenko (1887–1964), Joseph Csaky (1888–1971).[250] Synthetic cubism, contrasted with analytic cubism, is characterized by different textures, surfaces, collage elements, papier collé and a large variety of merged subject matter.[250] Other cubist variants include Tubism and Crystal Cubism.[251] Frenchman Delaunay and Czech František Kupka (1871–1957) were pioneers of Cubism-influence Orphism.[252]

Expressionism

[edit]
Alexej von Jawlensky, Der Blaue Reiter, 1909, Portrait of Alexander Sakharoff.

Symbolism and expressionism characterized several avant-garde movements, largely between World War I and World War II. While most notable expressionists were in Germany, they were also found in Austria, France, Belgium, Norway, and Russia.[254]

The expressionists include Munch, German Max Beckmann (1884–1950), Austrians Oskar Kokoschka (1886–1980) and Egon Schiele (1890–1918), French painters Marc Chagall (1887–1985), Georges Rouault (1871–1958), and Chaïm Soutine (1893–1943), Belgian James Ensor (1860–1949), and Italian eclectic Amedeo Modigliani (1884–1920).[254][255][256] While Swiss Alberto Giacometti (1901–1966) was primarily an expressionist sculptor, also made intense landscape paintings.[257][258]

Die Brücke ("The Bridge") was a group of influential modern, German expressionist artists formed in Dresden in 1905, including Fritz Bleyl (1880–1966), Erich Heckel (1883–1970), Ernst Ludwig Kirchner (1880–1938), Emil Nolde (1867–1956), and Karl Schmidt-Rottluff (1884–1976). Later members included Max Pechstein (1881–1955) and Otto Mueller (1874–1930).[259]

Der Blaue Reiter ("The Blue Rider") was a German expressionist movement lasting from 1911 to 1914, including Wassily Kandinsky (1866–1944), Franz Marc (1880–1916), August Macke (1887–1914), Alexej von Jawlensky (1864–1941), Marianne von Werefkin (1860–1938), Lyonel Feininger (1871–1956). Der Blaue Reiter lacked a central artistic manifesto, but was centered around Kandinsky and Marc, and also included Gabriele Münter (1877–1962) and Swiss Paul Klee (1879–1940).[260]

Abstract art

[edit]
Wassily Kandinsky, 1913, birth of Abstract Art.

Kandinsky is one of the first modern painters of abstract art. As an early modernist, he theorized, as did contemporary occultists and theosophists like Madame Blavatsky (1831–1891), that pure visual abstraction had corollary vibrations with sound and music.[261] They posited that pure abstraction could express pure spirituality, and Kandinsky penned Concerning the Spiritual in Art (1911).[262] Other major pioneers of abstract art include Klee, Swede Hilma af Klint (1862–1944), and Russian Kazimir Malevich (1879–1935).[263]

Malevich founded suprematism, an abstract art based on "the supremacy of pure artistic feeling" rather than on the figurative depiction of real-life subject, notable for influencing monochrome painting.[264][265][266] Russians Vladimir Tatlin (1885–1953) and Alexander Rodchenko (1891–1956) founded the industrial and urban abstract art of constructivism, influencing the Bauhaus painters.[267][268]

Delauney's orphism influenced abstract painting with his bold use of color and his experimentation of both depth and tone.[252][269] Arthur Dove (1880–1946) is the first American abstract painter.[270] Synchromists such as Morgan Russell (1886–1953) similarly were influenced by color's relation to music.[271]

De Stijl

[edit]
Piet Mondrian, De Stijl, "Composition No. 10" 1939–1942

The art of Dutchman Piet Mondrian (1872–1944) also reflects his interest in theosophy. De Stijl, also known as neoplasticism, was a Dutch artistic movement founded in 1917, including Mondrian, Theo van Doesburg (1883–1931), Vilmos Huszár (1884–1960), and Bart van der Leck (1876–1958).[272][273][k]

De Stijl was influenced by Cubism and the mysticism of neoplatonist mathematician M. H. J. Schoenmaekers (1875–1944), such as belief in ideal geometric forms (e. g. the "perfect straight line"),[274] seeking to express a new utopian ideal of spiritual harmony and order, advocating pure abstraction and universality by a reduction to the essentials of form and colour; they simplified visual compositions to the vertical and horizontal directions, and used only primary colors along with black and white.[l]

Bauhaus

[edit]

In Europe, Bonnard and Matisse continued developing their narrative styles independent of any movement.[277] The modernist Bauhaus movement saw painters influenced by De Stijl and constructivism like Kandinsky and Klee utilize geometric shapes and balance.[278][268]

American modernism

[edit]
Patrick Henry Bruce, American modernism, 1929–1930

American modernist painters during the period between World War I and World War II tended to go to Europe for recognition. Marsden Hartley (1877–1943), Stuart Davis (1884–1950), Patrick Henry Bruce (1881–1936), and Gerald Murphy (1888–1964) created reputations abroad.[279] Mystic Hartley, and Davis, experimented with expressionism,[280][281][282] while Bruce created Cubist related paintings.[283]

During the 1920s, photographer Alfred Stieglitz (1864–1946) exhibited Dove, Georgia O'Keeffe (1887–1986), Alfred Henry Maurer (1868–1932), Charles Demuth (1883–1935), John Marin (1870–1953) and other artists including Europeans Matisse, Rodin, Rousseau, Cézanne, and Picasso, at his New York City gallery the 291.[284]

Futurism

[edit]

The Futurism art movement glorified modernity and "aimed to liberate Italy from the weight of its past."[285] The futurists were founded by poet Filippo Tommaso Marinetti (1876–1944), and included painters Umberto Boccioni (1882–1916), Carlo Carrà (1881–1966), Fortunato Depero (1876–1944), Gino Severini (1883–1966), Giacomo Balla (1871–1958), and Luigi Russolo (1885–1947).[286]

Dada and Surrealism

[edit]
Marcel Duchamp, Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2, 1912, exhibited at 1913 Armory Show, Philadelphia Museum of Art

Giorgio de Chirico (1888–1978) moved to Paris in July 1911, joining his brother Alberto Savinio (born Andrea Francesco Alberto de Chirico (1891–1952)), who knew Laprade, a jury member of the Salon d'Automne, which exhibited his mysterious and dreamlike works, instrumental to beginning Surrealism.[290] During 1913 he exhibited his work at the Salon des Indépendants and Salon d'Automne, noticed by Picasso and Guillaume Apollinaire (1880–1918) among others.[290] Left-wing politics and radicalism characterized many of the artists connected to Surrealism.[291][292]

Marcel Duchamp (1887–1968) came to international prominence after the 1913 New York City Armory Show.[293] He subsequently pursued radical new limits to art, using part painting, part collage, part construction.[293] Duchamp became closely associated with the Dada movement that began in neutral Zürich, Switzerland during World War I, peaking from 1916 to 1920.[n] Dada primarily advanced its antiwar politic and rejection of the prevailing art standards through anti-art cultural works.[293][295] Other Dada painters include Francis Picabia (1879–1953), Man Ray (1890–1976), Kurt Schwitters (1887–1948), Hannah Höch (1889–1978), Tristan Tzara (1896–1963), Hans Richter (1888–1976), Jean (1886–1966) and Sophie Taeuber-Arp (1889–1943).[293]

Several Dadaists such as Duchamp and Picabia are also associated with Surrealism and the avant-garde, featuring artists whose works varied from the abstract to super-realist.[296] In 1924, André Breton (1896–1966) published the Surrealist Manifesto.[297][o]

Max Ernst, Murdering airplane, 1920

Surrealists Yves Tanguy (1900–1955), René Magritte (1898–1967) and Salvador Dalí (1904–1989) are particularly known for their realistic depictions of dream imagery and fantastic manifestations of the imagination, creating some of the most widely recognized images of the movement.[299] Bernard Delvaille (1931–2006) has described Magritte's surrealism as "Symbolism plus Freud".[300]

Breton purchased the paintings of Joan Miró (1893–1983), influenced by André Masson (1896–1987).[301][302] Surrealists emphasizing spontaneous, automatic or subconscious creation such as The Arps, Masson, Miró, and Max Ernst (1891–1976) were influential, especially in America.[293][299] Ernst was interested in Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) and the alternative realities experienced by the insane.[303]

Breton organized the British Surrealist Group's 1936 London International Surrealist Exhibition.[304] Surrealist groups formed in Japan, and especially in Latin America, the Caribbean and Mexico.[305] Other prominent surrealist painters include Méret Oppenheim (1913–1985), Toyen (1902–1980), Grégoire Michonze (1902–1982), Roberto Matta (1911–2002), Kay Sage (1898–1963), Leonora Carrington (1917–2001), Dorothea Tanning (1910–2012), and Leonor Fini (1907–1996).[306]

Neue Sachlichkeit

[edit]

During the post-World War I Weimar Republic and Great Depression in Germany, post-expressionist and satirical Neue Sachlichkeit ("New Objectivity") emerged as artists like Beckmann, Otto Dix (1891–1969), and George Grosz (1893–1959) politicized their paintings.[307]

Neo romanticism

[edit]

A unique European blend of surrealism and realism was found in the painter Balthus (1908–2001),[308] who is sometimes classified as a neo-romantic, a group of Romantic revival painters including Englishmen Paul Nash (1889–1946), Graham Sutherland (1903–1980), John Piper (1903–1992), and Ivon Hitchens (1893–1979); Frenchman Christian Bérard (1902–1949), and Russians like the Berman brothers and Pavel Tchelitchew (1898–1957).[309][310]

20th-century realism

[edit]
Grant Wood, American Gothic, 1930, Social Realism.[p]

American realism remained influential with painters like George Bellows (1882–1925),[205] and from the Great Depression through the years of World War II and beyond, American art was characterized by Regionalism, Social Realism, and American Scene Painting, including Thomas Hart Benton (1889–1975), Edward Hopper (1882–1967), Andrew Wyeth (1917–2009), Ben Shahn (1898–1969), Grant Wood (1891–1942), George Tooker (1920–2011), John Steuart Curry (1897–1946), Reginald Marsh (1898–1954), Will Barnet (1911–2012), Philip Evergood (1901–1973), Philip Pearlstein (1924–2022), Harry Sternberg (1904–2001), and "American Renoir" Waldo Pierce (1884–1970).[313][314]

Precisionism and "Immaculate" painters such as Demuth removed extravagant detail.[315] Magical realism painters included Paul Cadmus (1904–1999) and Henry Koerner (1915–1991).[316]

In Italy, Giorgio Morandi (1890–1964) was the foremost still-life painter, exploring a wide variety of approaches to depicting everyday bottles and kitchen implements.[309] Nazi Germany sought to combat "degenerate art", promoting painters like Adolf Ziegler (1892–1959).[317] The Soviet Union had Socialist realism.[318]

Abstract expressionism

[edit]

After World War II, abstract painting evolved into abstract expressionism. Influenced by Hartley and Davis, Dada and surrealism, as well as by abstract art and expressionism, American abstract expressionism, named in 1946 by art critic Robert Coates (1897–1973), was prevalent in New York City, and became synonymous with the New York School.[319][320][321] Abstract expressionism combined lessons from European Modernists via American teachers like Hans Hofmann (1880–1966) and John D. Graham (1887–1973), benefiting from the presence of Mondrian, Léger, Ernst and the Breton group, Matisse's gallery, and Peggy Guggenheim's (1898–1979) gallery The Art of This Century.[322] The paintings of Robert De Niro, Sr. (1922–1993) bridged the gap between modernism and Abstract Expressionism.[323]

Franz Kline, Sabra (1966)

Willem (1904–1997) and Elaine de Kooning (1918–1989), Franz Kline (1910–1962), Robert Motherwell (1915–1991), Barnett Newman (1905–1970), Ad Reinhardt (1913–1967), Milton Resnick (1917–2004), and Jack Tworkov (1900–1982) were members of "The Club."[324][325] Other members of the New York School included John Ferren (1905 – 1970), Helen Frankenthaler (1928–2011), Grace Hartigan (1922–2008), Conrad Marca-Relli (1913–2000), Knox Martin (1923–2022), Frank O'Hara (1926–1966), Larry Rivers (1923–2002), and Esteban Vicente (1903–2001).[326][327]

"Abstract expressionism" applies to a diverse group including the sometimes grotesque figurative paintings of Willem de Kooning, energetic drip and "action paintings" of Kline and Jackson Pollock (1912–1956), and simplified Color Field and monochrome paintings of Newman and Mark Rothko (1903–1970).[328][329] Also included are Post-painterly Abstraction, Geometric abstraction, shaped canvas painting, hard-edge painting, Minimalism and Postminimalism, Lyrical Abstraction, and abstract illusionism. Often influencing each other and blurred together, the distinction between these movements became more apparent in the 1980s and 1990s. Manfred Schwartz (1909–1970) practiced abstract pointillism.[330]

The Irascibles were 18 abstract expressionist painters who in 1950 penned an open letter to the president of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, boycotted the museum's exhibition American Painting Today - 1950.[331] They were Hofmann, Willem de Kooning, Motherwell, Newman, Pollock, Reinhardt, Rothko, Jimmy Ernst (1920–1984), Adolph Gottlieb (1903–1974), William Baziotes (1912–1963), Clyfford Still (1904–1980), Richard Pousette-Dart (1916–1992), Theodoros Stamos (1922–1997), Bradley Walker Tomlin (1899–1953), Hedda Sterne (1910–2011), James Brooks (1906–1992), Weldon Kees (1914–1955), and Fritz Bultman (1919–1985).[331]

A group of 75 artists issued a statement defending the museum, including Grosz, realists Barnet, Evergood, Marsh, Pierce, Sternberg, and Koerner; and abstract expressionists Schwartz and Milton Avery (1885–1965).[332]

Jackson Pollock, Brown and Silver I, Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum

The paintings of Arshile Gorky (1904–1948) show the evolution of abstract expressionism from figure painting, cubism and surrealism. Gorky created bio-morphically shaped and abstracted figurative compositions, that by the 1940s evolved into totally abstract paintings. Gorky's work carefully analyzes memory, emotion and shape, using line and color to express feeling and nature.[333][334]

The European equivalent of abstract expressionism developed from the School of Paris and related Cobra movement, including Jean Dubuffet (1901–1985), Pierre Soulages (1919–2022), Nicolas de Staël (1914–1955), Hans Hartung (1904–1989), Serge Poliakoff (1900–1969), and Georges Mathieu (1921–2012). The similar School of London included Frank Auerbach (1931–2024), Francis Bacon (1909–1992), and Lucian Freud (1922–2011).[335][336]

Action painting

[edit]

The most prominent action painters were Kline and Pollock. Kline is best known for bold, black-and-white compositions.[329] Kline's work focuses less, or not at all, on figures or imagery, but just on dramatic gestures and brush strokes with wide swaths of paint across the canvas.[337]

Pollock's technique of dripping paint onto a canvas laid on the floor was derived from surrealist Masson.[338] Mark Tobey (1890–1976) anticipated Pollock's style.[339] Pollock's wife was Lee Krasner (1908–1984).[340]

Color Field

[edit]
Mark Rothko's seagram murals, displayed at the Fondation Louis Vuitton in Paris.

Gottlieb, Newman, Rothko, and Still are classified as what art critic Clement Greenberg (1909–1994) termed Color field painting. Hofmann and Motherwell can be described as both action painters and Color field painters.[341] Additional Color field painters include Friedel Dzubas (1915–1994), John Hoyland (1934–2011), Jules Olitski (1922–2007), Larry Poons (born 1937), and Larry Zox (1937–2006).[342][343]

Much of de Staël's late work – in particular his abstract landscapes of the mid-1950s – prefigures Color field painting and Lyrical Abstraction of the 1960s and 1970s. Matisse, and Avery's use of color and interest in seascape and landscape paintings, influenced Color field painters such as Gottlieb and Rothko.[344][345]

Color field involves abstract paintings with large, flat expanses of color expressing sensual and visual feelings, and properties of large areas of nuanced surface, attempting to channel an almost religious experience, awestruck in the face of an expanding universe of sensuality, color and surface. The Washington Color School included Gene Davis (1920–1985), Morris Louis (1912–1962), and Kenneth Noland (1924–2010); and its associates include Paul Reed (1919–2015),[346][347] Thomas Downing (1928–1985), Sam Gilliam (1933–2002), Howard Mehring (1931–1978), and Alma Thomas (1891–1978).[348]

Post-painterly abstraction
[edit]

Greenberg noted a new movement in painting derived from abstract expressionism but that "favored openness or clarity", as opposed to the dense, painterly surface, stressing contrasts of pure hues, and diluted paint.[349][350] Post-painterly abstraction included Color field painters influenced by Newman,[351] and the soak-stain technique of Frankenthaler,[352] such as Walter Darby Bannard (1934–2016), Dzubas, Louis, and Noland.[329]

Geometric abstraction

[edit]
Ilya Bolotowsky

Influenced by Europeans Mondrian and Josef Albers (1888–1976), American Geometric abstraction painters include Mino Argento (born 1927), Ilya Bolotowsky (1907–1981), Davis, Agnes Denes (born 1931), Burgoyne Diller (1906–1965), Downing, Al Held (1928–2005), Kelly, Robert Mangold (born 1937), McLaughlin, Noland, Frank Stella (1936–2024), and Zox.[353][354][355] In Europe, Bauhaus artists pursued geometric abstraction.[268]

Shaped canvas

[edit]

Another movement associated with geometric abstraction was the use of the shaped canvas by such artists as Ronald Davis (1937–2025), Charles Hinman (1932–2026), Ellsworth Kelly (1923–2015), Al Loving (1935–2005), Mangold, Paul Mogensen, Jeremy Moon (1934–1973), Newman, Noland, David Novros (born 1941), Robert Ryman (1930–2019), Stella, Richard Tuttle (born 1941), and Neil Williams (1934–1988).[356]

Hard-edge

[edit]

Another tendency noted by Greenberg was hard-edge painting.[349] Influenced by Albers and Mondrian, hard-edge painting uses abrupt changes between color to define the shape of the painting.[357] The term was coined in 1959 by art historian Jules Langsner (1911—1967) to characterize the nonfigurative work of four California artists: Karl Benjamin (1925–2012), Lorser Feitelson (1898–1978), Frederick Hammersley (1919–2009), and John McLaughlin (1898–1976).[357]

Artists such as Davis, Al Held (1928–2005), Kelly, Alexander Liberman (1912–1999), Noland, Reinhardt, Stella, and Jack Youngerman (1926–2020) also explored hard-edge formats.[358]

Minimalism

[edit]
Brice Marden, 1966/1986, Monochrome painting

The Minimalists reacted against action painting, adopting the point of view that a work of art should not refer to anything other than itself.[358] The Minimalists were inspired by conceptual art, American suprematists, Color Field painters like Louis, Newman, and Reinhardt, and by hard-edge painters, as well as Europeans like Bauhaus, De Stijl, and Romanian sculptor Constantin Brâncuși (1876–1957).[358][359]

Reinhardt's reductive, all-black paintings seemed to anticipate minimalism, stated: "The more stuff in it, the busier the work of art, the worse it is. More is less. Less is more. The eye is a menace to clear sight. The laying bare of oneself is obscene. Art begins with the getting rid of nature."[360]

Jo Baer (1929–2025), Sol LeWitt (1928–2007), Mangold, Brice Marden (1938–2023), Agnes Martin (1912–2004), McLaughlin, Mogensen, Novros, Ryman, Stella, Tuttle, Cy Twombly (1928–2011), and Williams, are examples of artists associated with Minimalism.[358][361][362] LeWitt and Martin influenced Pat Steir (1938–2026).[363]

One of the first artists associated with Minimalism was Stella, whose early "stripe" paintings were highlighted in the 1959 show, "16 Americans", organized by Dorothy Miller at the Museum of Modern Art in New York.[364] The widths of the stripes were not entirely subjective, but were determined by the dimensions of the lumber used to construct the supportive chassis upon which the canvas was stretched. In the show catalog, Carl Andre (1935–2024) noted, "Art excludes the unnecessary. Frank Stella has found it necessary to paint stripes. There is nothing else in his painting."[365]

Influenced by Mangold, there was a movement in minimalism away from painterly and toward sculptural concerns. Donald Judd (1928–1994) started as a painter, but ended as a creator of objects. His seminal essay, "Specific Objects" (1964) influenced Minimalist aesthetics.[366] Specific Objects were not comfortably classifiable as either painting or sculpture, a part of their value for Judd.[366]

Judd rejected the residual, inherited European artistic values in American art, endorsing an array of artists active in New York at the time, including Jasper Johns (born 1930), installation artist Dan Flavin (1933–1996), and Lee Bontecou (1931–2022).[366] Of "preliminary" importance for Judd was the work of George Earl Ortman (1926–2015), who distilled painting's forms into blunt, tough, philosophically charged geometries.[367]

Ronnie Landfield, 1971, Lyrical Abstraction

Minimalism was heavily criticized by high modernist formalist art critics and historians, feeling it abandoned painting as understood by Greenberg. The most notable critic of Minimalism was Michael Fried (born 1939), who objected on the basis of its "theatricality". In "Art and Objecthood" (1967) he argued that work like Robert Morris's (1931–2018) transformed the act of viewing into a type of spectacle.[368]

Post-minimalism
[edit]

Post-minimalism[369] includes painters like Sean Scully (born 1945).[370] Joan Snyder (born 1940) described her paintings as maximalism.[371]

Lyrical Abstraction

[edit]

Lyrical Abstraction emphasizing gesture, rhythm, emotional brushwork, and a poetic sensibility is characterized by the paintings of Dan Christensen (1942–2007), Susan Crile (born 1942), Dzubas, Sam Francis (1923–1994), Hoyland, Ronnie Landfield (born 1947), Joan Mitchell (1925–1992), and Peter Young (born 1940).[372]

Abstract illusionism

[edit]
Ronald Davis, Ring, 1968, Abstract Illusionism

Abstract illusionism was a derivative of expressionism and hard-edge, coined by Barbara Rose (1936–2020) in 1967,[373] insisting on flatness of the picture plane, but with the added elements of perspective, artificial light sources, and simulated cast shadows. Abstract illusionism includes painters Ronald Davis, James Havard (1937–2020), Jack Lembeck (born 1942), Joe Doyle (1941–2020), Tony King, Jack Reilly (born 1950), George D. Green, Michael B. Gallagher (born 1945), and John Mikel Thomas.[374] Ronald Davis's polyester resin and fiberglass works pay homage to Duchamp.[375]

Art brut and outsider art

[edit]

A reaction against abstract art was Art brut, a term coined by Dubuffet shortly after World War II.[376][377] Art brut refers to untrained artists with no contact to the larger artworld. The English equivalent is "Outsider art", coined in 1972 by art critic Roger Cardinal (1940–2019).[378]

Bay Area Figurative Movement

[edit]
Hand-colored etchings of Wayne Thiebaud at the Courtauld Gallery.

Fairfield Porter (1907–1975) was a largely self-taught realist, producing representational work in the midst of the Abstract Expressionist movement. His subjects were primarily landscapes, domestic interiors and portraits of family, friends and fellow artists.[379]

During the early 1950s, de Staël abandoned abstraction, returning to representationalism, which, along with art brut,[380] set a precedent for the American Bay Area Figurative Movement, as many of those abstract painters like Elmer Bischoff (1916–1991), Richard Diebenkorn (1922–1993), David Park (1911–1960), Wayne Thiebaud (1920–2021), and Joan Brown (1938–1990) also returned to imagery.[381][382] An associated artist was Nathan Oliveira (1928 –2010).[383]

Neo-dada

[edit]

Neo-Dada is a movement in which manufactured items were combined with artist materials, creating new conventions of art-making; they made acceptable in serious, contemporary art circles the inclusion of unlikely materials as parts of their works of art.[295][319][384] Neo-Dada includes Johns, Robert Rauschenberg (1925–2008), Larry Rivers (1923–2002), John Chamberlain (1927–2011), Claes Oldenburg (1929–2002), George Segal (1924–2000), Jim Dine (born 1935), and Edward Kienholz (1927–1994).[384] Rauschenberg's "combines" used an assemblage of large physical objects, including stuffed animals, birds and commercial photography.[385] Rauschenberg influenced Elizabeth Murray (1940–2007).[386]

Fluxus

[edit]

Emerging at about the same time as minimalism, with similar motivations, was the Dada-influenced Fluxus movement.[387] Fluxus painters include Geoffrey Hendricks (1931–2018).[388]

Pop art

[edit]

The term Pop Art was first used in 1956 by Lawrence Alloway (1929–1990) for paintings that celebrated post-war consumerism. This movement rejected psychological Abstract expressionism, in favor of art which depicted material consumer and popular culture, advertising, and iconography of the mass production age.[390] Painters such as David Hockney (1937–2026), Richard Hamilton (1922–2011), Peter Blake (born 1932), and Eduardo Paolozzi (1924–2005) are considered examples of the movement.

In Manhattan's East Village 10th Street galleries, artists were formulating an American version of Pop art. Claes Oldenburg (1929–2022) had a storefront, and the Green Gallery on 57th Street began to show Tom Wesselmann (1931–2004) and James Rosenquist (1933–2017).

Pop-art, Campbell's Soup Cans by Andy Warhol.[q]

American Pop art was inspired by Neo-Dadaists Johns, Rivers, and Rauschenberg, and foreshadowed by Murphy, Davis, and primitivists like Demuth.[391][392][393] They were also inspired by the sense of humor of Dadaists like Duchamp and Ray.

Johns, Rivers, and Rauschenberg departed from abstract expressionism, especially in the use of banal and literal imagery, and the inclusion of mundane materials into their work. Johns used various images and objects like chairs, numbers, targets, beer cans and the American Flag. Rivers painted subjects drawn from popular culture, such as Camel cigarettes advertisements; and Rauschenberg's surprising constructions included objects and pictures taken from popular culture, hardware stores, junkyards, city streets, and taxidermy.

Pop art includes painters Dine, Oldenburg, Rosenquist, Wesselmann, Andy Warhol (1928–1987), Wayne Thiebaud (1920–2021), and Roy Lichtenstein (1923–1997). Warhol was noted as the "innovator of pop art", merging popular culture with fine art, while incorporating humor and irony.[394] The Museum of Modern Art held a "Symposium on Pop Art" in late 1962.[394]

Yves Klein, 1962, Monochrome painting

Lichtenstein used oil and Magna paint in thick outlines, bold colors and Ben-Day dots to reproduce the appearance of commercial printing. Lichtenstein would say of his own work: Abstract Expressionists "put things down on the canvas and responded to what they had done, to the color positions and sizes. My style looks completely different, but the nature of putting down lines pretty much is the same; mine just don't come out looking calligraphic, like Pollock's or Kline's."[395]

Nouveau réalisme

[edit]

Contemporary with American pop art, Nouveau réalisme (French for "new realism"), founded in 1960 by the art critic Pierre Restany (1930–2003),[396] and Yves Klein (1928–1962) during the first collective exposition in the Apollinaire gallery in Milan, included French painters using imagery in new and radical ways, like Arman (1928–2005), Martial Raysse (born 1936), Christo (1935–2020), Niki de Saint Phalle (1930–2002), David Hockney (1937–2026), Alex Katz (born 1927), Malcolm Morley (1931–2018), Ralph Goings (1928–2016), Audrey Flack (1931–2024), Richard Estes (born 1932), Chuck Close (1940–2021), Susan Rothenberg (1945–2020), Eric Fischl (born 1948), and Vija Celmins (born 1938).[397]

Op art

[edit]
Bridget Riley, Descending

"Op art" or optical art for abstract art with optical illusions was coined by Time magazine in 1964, in response to Julian Stanczak's (1928–2017) show Optical Paintings at the Martha Jackson Gallery.[398] Op art painters were influenced by Albers and include Victor Vasarely (1906–1977), Bridget Riley (born 1931), and Richard Anuszkiewicz (1930–2020).[399] Poons work related to Op Art with his emphasis on dots, ovals and after-images bouncing across color fields.[400]

Neo-expressionism

[edit]

In the late 1960s abstract expressionist Philip Guston (1913–1980) helped to lead a transition from abstract expressionism to Neo-expressionism in painting, abandoning the so-called "pure abstraction" of abstract expressionism in favor of more cartoonish renderings of various personal symbols and objects. These works were inspirational to a new generation of painters interested in a revival of expressive imagery.[401]

The Neo-expressionism movement was also related to earlier developments in Postminimal painting, reacting against the conceptual and minimalistic art of the 1960s and 1970s, returning to portraying recognizable objects, though in a rough and violently emotional way using vivid colors.[402]

A contemporaneous return to painting occurred in Italy, Germany, France and Britain, with the movements known respectively as Transavantguardia, Neue Wilde, Figuration Libre, and the school of London, in addition to the Stuckists.[403] These paintings were characterized by large formats, free expressive mark making, figuration, myth and imagination. All work in this genre came to be labeled neo-expressionism. Critical reaction was divided. Some critics regarded it as driven by profit motivations by large commercial galleries.[401]

The veteran painters Guston, Auerbach, Leon Kossoff (1926–2019), Gerhard Richter (born 1932), A. R. Penck (1939–2017) and Georg Baselitz (1938–2026), and Anselm Kiefer (born 1945).[404] Americans Eric Fischl (born 1948), Archie Rand (born 1949), Susan Rothenberg (1945–2020), David Salle (born 1952), Jean-Michel Basquiat (1960–1988), Julian Schnabel (born 1951), and Keith Haring (1958–1990), Italians Francesco Clemente (born 1952), Mimmo Paladino (born 1948), Sandro Chia (born 1946), and Enzo Cucchi (born 1949), and many others became known for working in this intense expressionist vein of painting.[401]

Neoconceptualism

[edit]
Damien Hirst, 2003

The representatives of postmodernism in painting were the neo-conceptualists, such as the Moscow Conceptualists, the Young British Artists, such as Damien Hirst (born 1965), and the Americans such as Ross Bleckner (born 1949), Peter Halley (born 1953), Jenny Holzer (born 1950), Jeff Koons (born 1955), Barbara Kruger, (born 1945), Louise Lawler (born 1947), Sherrie Levine (born 1947), Richard Prince (born 1949), Cindy Sherman (born 1954), Haim Steinbach (born 1944), and Philip Taaffe (born 1955).[405]

"Death of painting"

[edit]

Artists such as the situationists and photorealists began to practice new ways of painting. During the 1960s and 1970s, there was a reaction against painting.[406] Critics like Douglas Crimp (born 1956) viewed the work of artists like Reinhardt, and declared the "death of painting".[r]

Contemporary painting

[edit]

Painting still holds a respected position in contemporary art, both late modern and postmodern. Artists can achieve critical success whether their images are representational or abstract. What has currency is content, exploring the boundaries of the medium, and a refusal to recapitulate the works of the past.[409][410][411]

Throughout the 20th century and into the 21st century, with the advent of Modern and Postmodern art forms, distinctions between what is generally regarded as the fine arts and low arts have started to fade,[412] as contemporary high art continues to mix with popular culture.[413]

Mainstream painting has been rejected by postmodern artists in favor of artistic pluralism.[414] According to art critic Arthur Danto (1924–2013), there is an anything goes attitude that prevails; an "everything going on", and consequently "nothing going on" syndrome; this creates an aesthetic traffic jam.[415]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ↑ Though most surviving material comes from approximately 2300 to 1400 BC.
  2. ↑ The largest and best collection of Minoan art is in the Heraklion Archaeological Museum ("AMH") near Knossos, on the northern coast of Crete. Minoan art and other remnants of material culture, especially the sequence of ceramic styles, have been used by archaeologists to define the three main phases of Minoan culture (EM, MM, LM), and their many sub-phases. The dates to be attached to these remain much discussed, although within narrowing ranges.[10]
  3. ↑ Note the Minoan language, such as Linear A, and Minoan hieroglyphs, remains undeciphered.
  4. ↑ The Stoic philosophers were named for the Stoa Poikile (painted portico), erected in the Ancient Agora of Athens around 460 BC, with panel paintings of different battle scenes on each of its four walls, which different sources attribute to Micon, Panaenus, or Polygnotus.[27]
  5. ↑ He decorated the Temple of Salus with frescoes, celebrating the victory of the consul in the Second Samnite War (326-304 BC).[53] For 150 years after Pictor, no Roman painters are mentioned.
  6. ↑ In 1906 at the suggestion of his dealer Ambroise Vollard, André Derain went to London.
  7. ↑ The Fauvist group gained their name after critic Louis Vauxcelles of the 1905 Salon d'Automne described their work with the phrase "Donatello chez les fauves" ("Donatello among the wild beasts"),[241] contrasting the paintings with the Renaissance style sculpture that shared the room with them.[242] The jungle scene The Hungry Lion Throws Itself on the Antelope by non-Fauve Henri Rousseau hung near the works by Matisse, and may have inspired the sarcastic term used in the press.[243] Vauxcelles' comment was printed on 17 October 1905 in the daily newspaper Gil Blas, and passed into popular usage.[242][244]
  8. ↑ Apollinaire said of Matisse in an article published in La Falange, "We are not here in the presence of an extravagant or an extremist undertaking: Matisse's art is eminently reasonable."[246]
  9. ↑ The painting was first exhibited in Paris in 1937, then Scandinavia and London, and in 1939 at Picasso's request the painting was sent to the United States in an extended loan (for safekeeping) at MoMA. Finally in accord with Picasso's wish to give the painting to the people of Spain as a gift, it was sent to Spain in 1981.[247]
  10. ↑ For Kandinsky, blue is the color of spirituality: the darker the blue, the more it awakens human desire for the eternal.[253]
  11. ↑ De Stijl was also the name of a journal that was published by van Doesburg propagating the group's theories.
  12. ↑ Indeed, according to the Tate Gallery's online article on neoplasticism, Mondrian himself sets forth these delimitations in his essay "Neo-Plasticism in Pictorial Art". He writes, "... this new plastic idea will ignore the particulars of appearance, that is to say, natural form and colour. On the contrary, it should find its expression in the abstraction of form and colour, that is to say, in the straight line and the clearly defined primary colour." The Tate article further summarizes that this art allows "only primary colours and non-colours, only squares and rectangles, only straight and horizontal or vertical line."[275] The Guggenheim Museum's online article on De Stijl summarizes these traits in similar terms: "It [De Stijl] was posited on the fundamental principle of the geometry of the straight line, the square, and the rectangle, combined with a strong asymmetricality; the predominant use of pure primary colors with black and white; and the relationship between positive and negative elements in an arrangement of non-objective forms and lines."[276]
  13. ↑ Freud identified Schreber's fantasy of becoming a woman as a castration complex. The image of two pairs of legs refers to Schreber's hermaphroditic desires. Ernst's inscription on the back of the painting reads: The picture is curious because of its symmetry. The two sexes balance one another.[287]
  14. ↑ By 1923, Duchamp renounced artmaking for chess.[294]
  15. ↑ Georges Bataille was a surrealist philosopher, author of Story of the Eye (1928).[298].
  16. ↑ Portraying a pitchfork-holding farmer and a younger woman in front of a house of Carpenter Gothic style, it is one of the most familiar images in 20th-century American art. Art critics assumed it was satirical in intent; it was thought to be part of the trend towards increasingly critical depictions of rural America exemplified by Sherwood Anderson's 1919 Winesburg, Ohio, Sinclair Lewis' 1920 Main Street, and Carl Van Vechten's The Tattooed Countess in literature.[312] However, with the onset of the Great Depression, the painting came to be seen as a depiction of steadfast American pioneer spirit.
  17. ↑ The painting was displayed in October 1962 when the Sidney Janis Gallery mounted The New Realists, the first major Pop art group exhibition in an uptown art gallery in New York City. The show sent shockwaves through the New York School and reverberated worldwide.
  18. ↑ New movements gained prominence some of which are: Video art, Mail art, Earth art, arte povera, performance art, Happening, and body art.[407][408]

References

[edit]
  1. ↑ Cole, Bruce Art of the Western World: From Ancient Greece to Post Modernism. Simon and Schuster, 1981, Simonsays.com Archived 7 April 2020 at the Wayback Machine accessed 27 October 2007
  2. ↑ Lawson, Andrew J. (2012). Painted Caves: Palaeolithic Rock Art in Western Europe. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 373–374. ISBN 978-0-19-969822-6.
  3. 1 2 Gardner, H., De la Croix, H., Tansey, R. G. (1970). Gardner's Art Through the Ages. United States: Harcourt, Brace & World. p. 15
  4. ↑ "The Cave of Altamira – a Glimpse into the Palaeolithic Age" – via Deutsches Museum.
  5. ↑ Perlmutter, D. D. (1999). Visions of War: Picturing Warfare from the Stone Age to the Cyber Age. United Kingdom: St. Martin's Press. p. 47
  6. ↑ Benoist, L. (1961). Handbook of Western Painting: From Cave Painting to Abstract Art. United Kingdom: Thames and Hudson.
  7. ↑ Farnoux, Alexandre (5 July 2017). Cretomania: Modern Desires for the Minoan Past. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-351-57079-4.
  8. ↑ Honour & Fleming, 53
  9. ↑ Hardy DA (1989). "Therea and the Aegean World III", Volume III—Chronology (Proceedings of the Third International Congress, Hardy DA, editor). Archived from the original on 10 May 2006. Retrieved 16 March 2008.
  10. ↑ Hood, 18
  11. ↑ Egypt, the Aegean and the Levant: Interconnections in the Second Millennium BC. (1995). United Kingdom: Trustees of the British Museum.
  12. ↑ Castleden, 4
  13. ↑ Hood, 56
  14. ↑ Olsen, Barbara A. (1998). "Women, Children and the Family in the Late Aegean Bronze Age: Differences in Minoan and Mycenaean Constructions of Gender". World Archaeology. 29 (3): 380–392. doi:10.1080/00438243.1998.9980386. JSTOR 125037.
  15. ↑ Hood, 17–18, 23–24
  16. ↑ Hood, 240–241
  17. ↑ Sinisgalli, R. (2012). Perspective in the Visual Culture of Classical Antiquity. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. p. 63-64
  18. ↑ Small, J.P. Circling Round Vitruvius, Linear Perspective, and the Design of Roman Wall Painting. Arts 2019, 8, 118. https://doi.org/10.3390/arts8030118
  19. ↑ Gombrich, E. H. (2023). Art and Illusion: A Study in the Psychology of Pictorial Representation - Millennium Edition. United Kingdom: Princeton University Press.
  20. ↑ Baines, J. (2007). Visual and Written Culture in Ancient Egypt. United Kingdom: OUP Oxford. p. 209
  21. ↑ Stansbury-O'Donnell, M. (2015). A History of Greek Art. Germany: Wiley. p. 95
  22. ↑ Lydakēs, S. (2004). Ancient Greek Painting and Its Echoes in Later Art. United States: J. Paul Getty Museum.
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  24. ↑ "Tomb Paintings in the Hellenistic World".
  25. ↑ H. BRECOULAKI, G. VERRI, B. BOURGEOIS, F. P. ROMANO, A. G. KARYDAS, C. CALIRI, E. MATIN-GONZALEZ, G. KAVVADIAS, “The lost art of Archaic Greek painting: revealing new evidence on the Pitsa pinakes through MA-XRF and imaging techniques”, Techné 48, 2019, 35-54”.
  26. ↑ Abbe, Mark B. "Painted Funerary Monuments from Hellenistic Alexandria - The Metropolitan Museum of Art". www.metmuseum.org.
  27. ↑ Wycherley, R. E. (1957). The Athenian Agora III: Literary and Epigraphical Testimonia. Princeton, NJ: American School of Classical Studies at Athens.
  28. ↑ Salisbury, Joyce E. (2001). Encyclopedia of women in the ancient world ([Nachdr.] ed.). Santa Barbara, Calif. [u.a.]: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 1576070921.
  29. ↑ Life of Cimon, Plutarch
  30. ↑ Reinach, S., Simmonds, F. (1904). The Story of Art Throughout the Ages: An Illustrated Record. United Kingdom: C. Scribner's Sons. p. 52
  31. ↑ Tarbell, F. B. (1896). A history of Greek art, with an introductory chapter on art in egypt and Mesopotamia. United Kingdom: Macmillan. p. 278
  32. ↑ Keuls, E. C. (2011). Painter and Poet in Ancient Greece: Iconography and the Literary Arts. Germany: De Gruyter. p. 121, 143
  33. ↑ A Companion to Greek Art. (2018). United Kingdom: Wiley. p. 175
  34. ↑ Cicero, Marcus Tullius (2006). De Inventione. Vol. II. ReadHowYouWant.com. ISBN 9781425031824.
  35. ↑ Mansfield, Elizabeth (2007). Too beautiful to picture: Zeuxis, myth, and mimesis. University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 978-0-8166-4749-1. (see also: mimesis)
  36. ↑ Darab, Ágnes. “NATURA, ARS, HISTORIA ANECDOTIC HISTORY OF ART IN PLINY THE ELDER’S ‘NATURALIS HISTORIA’ PART I: Natura and Ars: The Place of Art History in ‘Naturalis Historia.’” Hermes, vol. 142, no. 2, 2014, pp. 206–24. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/43652920. Accessed 2 Oct. 2026.
  37. ↑ The Edinburgh Encyclopædia Conducted by David Brewster, with the Assistance of Gentlemen Eminent in Science and Literature. (1832). United States: J. and E. Parker. p. 282
  38. ↑ Sextus Empiricus, Outlines of Pyrrhonism, Trans. R.G. Bury, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1933, p. 19., ISBN 0-674-99301-2
  39. ↑ Wikisource One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Aristides". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 495.
  40. 1 2 Pliny, Natural History, xxxv.108-110.
  41. ↑ Bundrick, S. (2005).&;Music and image in classical Athens. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.
  42. ↑ Osborne, R. (2018). The Transformation of Athens: Painted Pottery and the Creation of Classical Greece. United Kingdom: Princeton University Press.
  43. ↑ "Beazley Archive Contents". CLASSICAL ART RESEARCH CENTRE.
  44. ↑ Steingräber, Stephan, Abundance of Life: Etruscan Wall Painting, 2006, J. Paul Getty Museum, Getty Publications, ISBN 0892368659, 978-0892368655, google books
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Sources

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On the effects of Gutenberg's printing

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  • Elizabeth L. Eisenstein, The Printing Press as an Agent of Change, Cambridge University Press, September 1980, Paperback, 832 pages, ISBN 0-521-29955-1
  • More recent, abridged version: Elizabeth L. Eisenstein, The Printing Revolution in Early Modern Europe, Cambridge University Press, 2Rev ed, 12 September 2005, Paperback, ISBN 0-521-60774-4
  • Marshall McLuhan, The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man (1962) University of Toronto Press (1st ed.); reissued by Routledge & Kegan Paul ISBN 0-7100-1818-5.
  • Briggs & Burke, A Social History of the Media: The Print Revolution in Context (2002)
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