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Paphos (ancient city-state)
Πάφος (Greek)
Location of Paphos (ancient city-state)
Largest cityPaphos (Palaepaphos)
Official languagesArcadocypriot, Eteocypriot, Greek
Ethnic groups
Cypriots, Greeks
DemonymPaphians
Establishment
• Settled
c. 1700 BC
• Dissolved
late 4th century BC
Today part of Cyprus

Paphos was a polity of ancient Cyprus located on the Mediterranean coast in the southwest of the island. Paphos was a major economic and religious hub in the eastern Mediterranean from the Middle Bronze Age until its dissolution at the start of the Hellenistic period. Its port and administrative center was the homonymous settlement of Paphos (later Palaepaphos), established c. 1700 BC near modern Kouklia.[1] In the Iron Age, Paphos was known as a polis (city-state) or "city-kingdom" of Cyprus.[a][3][4] It is unknown if the ancient polity's regional influence approximated the boundaries of the modern Paphos District.

Ruins of the Sanctuary of Aphrodite in Palaepaphos, near modern Kouklia.

With the dissolution of Paphos under Ptolemaic rule, the city of Nea Paphos was established as a provincial capital and port, while Palaepaphos remained an important cultic site throughout the Hellenistic and Roman periods until the early Christian era when the Sanctuary of Aphrodite Paphia was closed.[5][6]

UNESCO inscribed the ruins of Paphos as a World Heritage Site in 1980. It is a serial property consisting of three components: Palaepaphos ("Old Paphos", in modern Kouklia); Nea Paphos; and the Tombs of the Kings.[7] Much of ancient Paphos is under archaeological excavation, managed by the Cyprus Department of Antiquities.

Naming conventions

[edit]

The ancient polity of Paphos originated with the Bronze Age settlement called "Paphos", established in the 17th century BC[8] near modern Kouklia. It would emerge as the administrative, trade, and cultic center of the larger polity which would bear the settlement's name. The polity was dissolved in the 4th century BC, and its founding settlement became known as Palaepaphos (Old Paphos)[4][7] following the establishment of Nea Paphos (New Paphos) as a new port and later capital of Ptolemaic and then Roman Cyprus[9] in the Kato Pafos district of the modern city of Paphos in the Paphos District.

Ancient geographers frequently confused Palaepaphos and Nea Paphos.[9] A modern convention refers to the polity (whether defined as polis or "city-kingdom") as Paphos, its earliest settlement and long-time capital as Palaepaphos (anachronistically if before 4th century BC) or Palaepaphos-Kouklia, and the city founded at the time of Paphos's dissolution as Nea Paphos.

History

[edit]

The earliest human settlers of Cyprus arrived from Anatolia, the Levant, and the Balkans.[10] Human habitation in the site around Palaepaphos began in the Neolithic (c. 10,000–5500 BC). There is evidence of cult activity dedicated to local fertility deities occurring at the site as early as the 6th millennium BC.[4][7]

Mortar and diabase pestle, with a limestone bowl. Kissonerga-Mosfilia, Late Chalcolithic period, 2800-2500 BC. Archaeological Museum of Paphos

Bronze Age

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The first evidence of permanent human settlement on the site of Palaepaphos is dated to c. 1700 BC, in the Middle Bronze Age.[8] It was likely established as the terminus of a network of settlements whose economies were based on the mining and transport of copper. The site's proximity to rivers and its estuary anchorage[b] made its location ideal for commercial export of the mineral, and provided the fresh water necessary to sustain a permanent settlement.[12][13]

Copper ingot from ancient Cyprus, undated. Altes Museum, Berlin.

Cyprus possessed vast reserves of copper, the name of which derives from that of the island itself.[c] Copper is essential for bronze production, which made Cyprus a focal point of Bronze Age geopolitics in the Eastern Mediterranean. Regional powers and Cypriot polities competed continuously for control over the island's copper supply throughout the Bronze and Iron Ages.

Cyprus largely escaped the Late Bronze Age collapse of the late 13th and early 12th centuries that destroyed Aegean palace economies, and avoided the destruction and foreign colonization that affected neighboring regional centers. Settlements across the island experienced an influx of displaced laborers from inland regions and of Greek settlers who gradually integrated with the local population.[16][17] Mycenaean settlers in Palaepaphos likely built the Sanctuary of Aphrodite in the 12th century BC; its monumental ashlar temenos matches contemporary designs at Kition.[18][19]

The remains of the Bronze Age temenos wall of the Sanctuary of Aphrodite Paphia, dated to the 12th century BC. Palaepaphos near modern Kouklia.

Iron Age

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By the Cypro-Geometric I period [d] (1050–950 BC), Palaepaphos had emerged as an important Iron Age manufacturing and maritime trading center. It pioneered the production and export of forged iron and was a major port on the long-distance trade routes that crossed the Mediterranean.[16][17]

Zoomorphic askos from Palaepaphos near modern Kouklia, Cyprus. Cypro-Geometric I period, 11th century BC.

Unlike the geopolitically fragmented polities of eastern Cyprus, Paphos maintained territorial integrity and uncontested control over its resource-rich hinterland. Direct access to copper deposits and shipbuilding timber in the Troodos Mountains throughout the Cypro-Geometric periods (c. 950–700 BC) generated substantial wealth, reflected in extensive chamber tomb cemeteries in Palaepaphos.[21] The Sanctuary of Aphrodite Paphia complex in Palaepaphos operated as both religious center and as a governing authority over Paphos's metallurgy and maritime trade.[18][19]

Paphos remained stable into the 8th century BC.[22] Among other evidence of continuity is the uninterrupted use of Linear-derived scripts (Cypro-Minoan and Cypro-Syllabic) for both Greek and Eteocypriot languages, from Paphos's Late Bronze Age roots into its emergence as an autonomous Cypro-Archaic city-state.[16]

The "city-kingdoms" of Cyprus

[edit]
The ancient "city-kingdoms" of Cyprus. Paphos is in the southwest.

In the 9th and 8th centuries BC, the Neo-Assyrian Empire extended its influence over Cyprus in order to secure its access to copper. Neo-Assyrian royal inscriptions from the 7th century BC document direct client relationships with Cypriot polities, recording Paphos among ten major Cypriot "city-kingdoms"[e] paying the empire tribute.<[5]

These autonomous poleis or "city-kingdoms" largely endured through the Cypro-Archaic periods (750–480 BC) and into the Cypro-Classical (480–310).[5][23] Even under the sway of foreign powers, Paphos maintained political and religious authority over its rural hinterlands, which included farming communities and highland sanctuary sites, into the late 4th century BC.[24]

Egyptian and Achaemenid Persian rule

[edit]

Neo-Assyrian rule of Cyprus ended in 669 BC; Egypt assumed control between 570 and 526/525 BC. The island came under Persian Achaemenid control around 545 BC. Paphos was one of the Cypriot polities which joined the Ionian Revolt against the Persians in 499–498 BC. In response, Persian forces besieged Palaepaphos and constructed a massive assault ramp against the city walls. The Persians dismantled a nearby Archaic-era sanctuary for materials to build the ramp, while Paphian defenders constructed underground sallyports and mined the ramp to induce its collapse. Persia quashed the Ionian Revolt and would continue to control Paphos and the whole of Cyprus until in 330 BC, when the Macedonian armies of Alexander the Great conquered Persia.[9]

Hellenistic rule and dissolution

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Following the death of Alexander in 323 BC and the conclusion of the Wars of the Diadochi in 272 BC, Cyprus came under Ptolemaic control. This era brought complete Hellenization across the island.[25]

End of maritime Palaepaphos

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Palaepaphos suffered a fate common amongst maritime cities in the ancient world: the gradual unusability of its harbor due to siltation.[f] When the harbor became too shallow for seagoing vessels to enter—as had evidently happened at Palaepaphos even before the 4th century BC—the harbor became unusable and abandoned.[13]

Founding of Nea Paphos

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Nicocles of Paphos founded Nea Paphos (New Paphos) to serve as the administrative and maritime capital under Ptolemaic administration. The site was chosen primarily for its excellent deep-water anchorage to replace the unusable harbor at the old capital city of Paphos. The original capital then became known as Palaepaphos (Old Paphos); ancient authors often confused the two by calling them both "Paphos".[7][4] The city-state of Paphos, along with the other polities of Cyprus, was formally dissolved under Ptolemaic rule in the 3rd century BC,[5] and Ptolemy I Soter forced Nicocles commit suicide for taking part in a plot against him.[26][27]

After the dissolution of the Paphian city-state, Nea Paphos became a wealthy port city and provincial capital.[5][7] The Roman Republic acquired Cyprus in 58 BC and formally established the province of Roman Cyprus in 22 BC. Palaepaphos and the Sanctuary of Aphrodite (Venus to the Romans) were renowned religious sites until the early Christan era.[9][28]

Natale Bonifacio, 1570, "Cyprus Insula". Paphos is labeled "Bafo" in the southwest.

The Paphian syllabary

[edit]

The local writing tradition of Paphos originated in the transition from the Late Bronze Age Cypro-Minoan script to the Greek language around the 10th and 9th centuries BC, ultimately evolving into a distinct regional writing system known as the Paphian syllabary.[29]

The late 8th century BC onward saw the emergence of the Arcadocypriot Greek dialect in Paphos. It was written in the native Cypriot syllabic script and was the official Paphian political and administrative language, while other Cypriot polities adopted the Phoenician alphabet or used the indigenous Eteocypriot language.[30]

Over 500 syllabic inscriptions found within Paphian territory document three chronologically distinct variants: Old (6th century BC); Middle (5th century BC); and Late Paphian (late 4th century BC). Each variant is characterized by specific sign repertoires.[29] In the late 4th century BC, Nicocles, the polity's final monarch, introduced a reformed and archaicizing version of the Paphian Cypro-syllabic script to strengthen his legitimacy amidst the destabilizing wars of the Diadochi.[24][25]

Stone tablet with Cypro-syllabic inscription. Kritou Tera-Fytefkia, Cypro-Classical II period, 4th century BC. Archaeological Museum of Paphos

A smaller corpus of Paphian syllabic inscriptions was found outside Cyprus, dated to the Cypro-Archaic period through the 3rd century BC. These inscriptions were uncovered in Italy, Greece, Egypt, Nubia, and Phoenicia, on ceramic vessels, marble stelae, seals, coins, and temple walls. Votive dedications discovered at the Phoenician sites of Sidon and Tel Dor record religious offerings, while ownership marks on amphorae from Italy and Greece indicate the movement of goods or merchants. Graffiti incised by Cypriot mercenaries has been identified at Karnak in Egypt. The graffiti records the soldiers' names, patronymics, and origins.[29]

Palaeapaphos-Kouklia

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Legacy

[edit]

After the establishment of Nea Paphos and the dissolution of the city-state of Paphos, the city of Palaepaphos near modern Kouklia remained a subject of popular and scholarly interest into the modern era.[31] Textual sources focus almost exclusively on the Sanctuary of Aphrodite and largely ignore Palaepaphos's important early history as a major Bronze and Iron Age maritime polity. The city's harbor had become unusable well before the capital's relocation, and littoral transformations moved the coastline seaward, stranding the port complex and the Sanctuary inland and effectively hiding their former proximity to the sea.[g][32]

Map of Palaepaphos and Kouklia, 1811, by Joseph von Hammer-Purgstall, from his Topographic views collected on a trip to the Levant

Literary mentions of Paphos go back as far as Homer, who named Paphos and the goddess in the Iliad and Odyssey. The majority of surviving Greek and Latin accounts of Palaepaphos date to the island's Roman period and include 4th-century Christian polemics directed against the pagan cult center.[31] During the Renaissance and early modern eras, European humanists turned to classical literary sources in attempts to locate the Sanctuary. It proved difficult for these early visitors to identify the temenos due to coastal transformations and the absence of a recognizable Greek-style temple.[31]

Mythological and cult traditions

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Foundation myths

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According to epic and mythological traditions, Palaepaphos and the Sanctuary of Aphrodite were founded by Agapenor, King of Tegea in Arcadia, after the Trojan War. An alternate native tradition attributes the Aphrodite cult's early establishment to Cinyras, who is noted in the Iliad. In this tradition, Cinyras's descendants the Cinyradai served as hereditary priests at the Sanctuary in Palaepaphos. The ancient geographers Strabo and Pausanias mistakenly identified Nea Paphos as Agapenor's original foundation site, a historiographical error contradicted both by Mycenaean remains at Palaepaphos and by the historicity the new capital's 4th-century BC.[9]

During the late 4th century BC, Paphians actively venerated local agricultural deities as documented by Cypro-Syllabic inscriptions discovered at Tala. Among these deities was the grain-harvest goddess "wo-lo-we-a", whom scholars link to Demeter.[24]

The cult of Aphrodite

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Petra tou Romiou ("The rock of the Greek") or "Aphrodite's Rock", mythical birthplace of the goddess in Palaepaphos, modern Kouklia

Scholars identify the Aphrodite cult's early origins in Late Bronze Age Cyprus as a synthesis of Aegean, Near Eastern, and local Mediterranean elements. Cypriot and Paphian tradition revered Palaepaphos as the birthplace of the cult, holding that the goddess landed on its shores and established her sanctuary there.[28]

The Sanctuary of Aphrodite Paphia became widely noted in classical literature, beginning with the Homeric epics. Strabo later recorded the annual 60-stadia ritual procession connecting Old and New Paphos (Palaepaphos and Nea Paphos).[9][28] Roman-era Augustan coinage offers valuable visual depictions of the temple's architectural layout and its central aniconic stone.[9]

Archaeology

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In 1887, British scholars conducted the first systematic archaeological excavations of the Palaepaphos sanctuary complex.[31] Current studies across the extent of occupation sites in Palaepaphos-Kouklia undertaken by the University of Cyprus include the use of digital imaging to map the ancient coastline of Palaepaphos and locate sites in relation to the city's maritime history.[33]

The Local Archaeological Museum of Palaipafos in Kouklia (often called the Kouklia Museum) and the Archaeological Museum of the Pafos District (Paphos Archaeological Museum) maintain large collections of finds from ancient Palaepaphos and vicinity.

Paphos UNESCO World Heritage Site

[edit]

UNESCO inscribed Paphos as a World Heritage Site in 1980 under criterion (iii) for its unique testimony to a vanished civilization and criterion (vi) for its direct association with events or traditions of outstanding universal value.[4][7]

The Paphos World Heritage Site is a serial archaeological property comprising three components across two geographic locations: Kato Paphos (Site I) and Kouklia (Site II). The Kouklia site includes Palaepaphos and the remains of the Sanctuary of Aphrodite. The Kato Paphos site contains the ancient Hellenistic and Roman city of Nea Paphos and the subterranean necropolis of Tafoi ton Vasileon ("Tombs of the Kings").[4][7]

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ↑ The term "ten city-kingdoms" is doubly imprecise by standards of modern scholarship. It derived from a 673–672 BC tribute list of the Neo-Assyrian king Esarhaddon. The actual number of polities fluctuated over time until their final dissolution under the Ptolemies in the late 4th century BC, and the designation "city-kingdom" has been called into question in favor of the more conventional terms "city-state" or "polis".[2]
  2. ↑ As the river(s) and anchorage(s) had silted up by 4th century BC, details—including possible locations and names—are vague. Historical sources refer to a harbor at Paphos on the mouth of a "Bocarus" river, and some of these same sources equate the Bocarus with the Diarizos.[11] See Iacouvou (2019) for an analysis of the current state of scholarship.
  3. ↑ The name of the metal derives from the Latin aes cyprium meaning 'metal of Cyprus', which became cuprum in Late Latin[14]and coper in Old English; copper is first attested in the 12th century.[15]
  4. ↑ Periods of Cyprus's history from 1050 BC have been named according to styles of pottery found, as follows:[20]
    • Cypro-Geometric I: 1050–950 BC
    • Cypro-Geometric II: 950–900 BC
    • Cypro-Geometric III: 900–750 BC
    • Cypro-Archaic I: 750–600 BC
    • Cypro-Archaic II: 600–480 BC
    • Cypro-Classical I: 480–400 BC
    • Cypro-Classical II: 400–310 BC
  5. ↑ See note [a].
  6. ↑ Ancient maritime cities often located their harbors in river estuaries to shelter anchored vessels from the sea and for access to fresh water. In doing so, a city would solve the problem of exposure to waves only to eventually face the siltation of its harbor by fluvial sediment processes. Transported sediment is then moved along the coastline by wave-driven littoral drift. Half of the known ancient Mediterranean harbors are no longer in use; around 15% of these are silted-up.[13]
  7. ↑ See notes [b] and [f].

References

[edit]
  1. ↑ Iacovou, Maria (2019). "Palaepaphos: Unlocking the Landscape Context of the Sanctuary of the Cypriot Goddess". Open Archaeology. 5 (1): 214–216. doi:10.1515/opar-2019-0015.
  2. ↑ Satraki, Anna (November 2013). "The Iconography of Basileis in Archaic and Classical Cyprus: Manifestations of Royal Power in the Visual Record". Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research (370): 123–144. doi:10.5615/bullamerschoorie.370.0123.
  3. ↑ Iacovou, Maria (2018). "From the Late Cypriot Polities to the Iron Age "Kingdoms": Understanding the Political Landscape of Cyprus from Within". In Cannavò, Anna; Thély, Ludovic (eds.). Les royaumes de Chypre à l'épreuve de l'histoire: Transitions et ruptures de la fin de l'âge du Bronze au début de l'époque hellénistique [The Kingdoms of Cyprus Tested by History: Transitions and Ruptures from the End of the Bronze Age to the Beginning of the Hellenistic Period]. Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique Suppléments (in French). Vol. 60. Athens: École française d'Athènes. p. paragraph 14. doi:10.4000/books.efa.2901. ISBN 978-2-86958-307-8. Retrieved 18 September 2026.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "Μνημεία Παγκόσμιας Κληρονομιάς – Πάφος" [World Heritage Monuments – Paphos]. Τμήμα Αρχαιοτήτων - Υφυπουργείο Πολιτισμού (in Greek). Department of Antiquities, Republic of Cyprus. Retrieved 8 September 2026.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 Radner, Karen (2025). "The many kingdoms of Cyprus". Assyrian Empire Builders. University College London. Retrieved 10 September 2026.
  6. ↑ Iacovou, Maria (2019). "Palaepaphos: Unlocking the Landscape Context of the Sanctuary of the Cypriot Goddess". Open Archaeology. 5 (1): 214–216. doi:10.1515/opar-2019-0015.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 "Paphos". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved 21 July 2020.
  8. 1 2 Iacovou, Maria (2019). "Palaepaphos: Unlocking the Landscape Context of the Sanctuary of the Cypriot Goddess". Open Archaeology. 5 (1): 214–215. doi:10.1515/opar-2019-0015.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Stillwell, Richard; MacDonald, William L.; McAllister, Marian Holland, eds. (1976). "PAPHOS or Palaipaphos (Kouklia) Cyprus". The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
  10. ↑ Voskarides, K.; Mazières, S.; Hadjipanagi, D.; Di Cristofaro, J.; Ignatiadou, A.; Stefanou, C.; El-Sibai, M.; Koupparis, G.; Loutsiou, A.; Giannakeas, T.; Michailidou, K.; Chiaroni; Deltas, C. (2016). "Y-chromosome phylogeographic analysis of the Greek-Cypriot population reveals elements consistent with Neolithic and Bronze Age settlements". Investigative Genetics. 7 (1): 1. doi:10.1186/s13323-016-0032-8. PMC 4750176. PMID 26870315.
  11. ↑ Myres, John (1911). "Paphos" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 20 (11th ed.). pp. 736–737.
  12. ↑ Iacovou, Maria (2019). "Palaepaphos: Unlocking the Landscape Context of the Sanctuary of the Cypriot Goddess". Open Archaeology. 5 (1): 216. doi:10.1515/opar-2019-0015.
  13. 1 2 3 De Graauw, Arthur. "Silting up". Ancient Ports - Ports Antiques. Retrieved 29 September 2026.
  14. ↑ Muhly, James David (1973). Copper and Tin. Hamden, Connecticut: The Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences. pp. 174–175. ISBN 0-208-01217-6.
  15. ↑ "Copper". Merriam-Webster. 2018. Retrieved 22 August 2018.
  16. 1 2 3 Jasink, Anna Margherita (2010). "The Role of Cyprus and the Mycenaean / Greek Presence in the Island from the End of Bronze Age to the First Phases of Iron Age" (PDF). Studi Micenei ed Egeo-Anatolici. 52: 153–178. Retrieved 14 September 2026.
  17. 1 2 Iacovou, Maria (2018). "From the Late Cypriot Polities to the Iron Age "Kingdoms": Understanding the Political Landscape of Cyprus from Within". In Cannavò, Anna; Thély, Ludovic (eds.). Les royaumes de Chypre à l'épreuve de l'histoire: Transitions et ruptures de la fin de l'âge du Bronze au début de l'époque hellénistique [The Kingdoms of Cyprus Tested by History: Transitions and Ruptures from the End of the Bronze Age to the Beginning of the Hellenistic Period]. Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique Suppléments (in French). Vol. 60. Athens: École française d'Athènes. p. paragraphs 17-20. doi:10.4000/books.efa.2901. ISBN 978-2-86958-307-8. Retrieved 18 September 2026.
  18. 1 2 "Paphos". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved 21 July 2020.
  19. 1 2 "Μνημεία Παγκόσμιας Κληρονομιάς – Πάφος" [World Heritage Monuments – Paphos]. Τμήμα Αρχαιοτήτων - Υφυπουργείο Πολιτισμού (in Greek). Department of Antiquities, Republic of Cyprus. Retrieved 8 September 2026.
  20. ↑ Zemer, Avshalom; Rotgaizer, Orit (2011). Cypriot Pottery in Ancient Times. Haifa Museums – The National Maritime Museum. p. 119. ISBN 978-965-535-013-5.
  21. ↑ Iacovou, Maria (2018). "From the Late Cypriot Polities to the Iron Age "Kingdoms": Understanding the Political Landscape of Cyprus from Within". In Cannavò, Anna; Thély, Ludovic (eds.). Les royaumes de Chypre à l'épreuve de l'histoire: Transitions et ruptures de la fin de l'âge du Bronze au début de l'époque hellénistique [The Kingdoms of Cyprus Tested by History: Transitions and Ruptures from the End of the Bronze Age to the Beginning of the Hellenistic Period]. Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique Suppléments (in French). Vol. 60. Athens: École française d'Athènes. p. paragraphs 25-29. doi:10.4000/books.efa.2901. ISBN 978-2-86958-307-8. Retrieved 18 September 2026.
  22. ↑ Iacovou, Maria (2018). "From the Late Cypriot Polities to the Iron Age "Kingdoms": Understanding the Political Landscape of Cyprus from Within". In Cannavò, Anna; Thély, Ludovic (eds.). Les royaumes de Chypre à l'épreuve de l'histoire: Transitions et ruptures de la fin de l'âge du Bronze au début de l'époque hellénistique [The Kingdoms of Cyprus Tested by History: Transitions and Ruptures from the End of the Bronze Age to the Beginning of the Hellenistic Period]. Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique Suppléments (in French). Vol. 60. Athens: École française d'Athènes. p. paragraphs 22–24. doi:10.4000/books.efa.2901. ISBN 978-2-86958-307-8. Retrieved 18 September 2026.
  23. ↑ Pestarino, Beatrice (2024). "An Eteocypriot-Greek bilingual inscription and the meaning of Cypriot eupatridai". Kadmos. 63 (1/2): 19–38. doi:10.1515/kadmos-2024-0002.
  24. 1 2 3 Pestarino, Beatrice (2023). "Review of:Maria Christidis, Antoine Hermary, Gabriele Koiner, Anja Ulbrich, Classical Cyprus: proceedings of the Conference, University of Graz, 21-23 September 2017. Kypriaka, 5. Wien: Verlag Holzhausen, 2020. Pp. 497. ISBN 9783903207462". Bryn Mawr Classical Review. Retrieved 13 September 2026.
  25. 1 2 Mitford, T. B.; Masson, Olivier (1982). "The Cypriot syllabary". In Boardman, John; Hammond, N. G. L. (eds.). The Cambridge Ancient History. Cambridge University Press. pp. 71–82. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521234474.005. ISBN 978-1139054300.
  26. ↑ Iacovou, Maria (2018). "From the Late Cypriot Polities to the Iron Age "Kingdoms": Understanding the Political Landscape of Cyprus from Within". In Cannavò, Anna; Thély, Ludovic (eds.). Les royaumes de Chypre à l'épreuve de l'histoire: Transitions et ruptures de la fin de l'âge du Bronze au début de l'époque hellénistique [The Kingdoms of Cyprus Tested by History: Transitions and Ruptures from the End of the Bronze Age to the Beginning of the Hellenistic Period]. Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique Suppléments (in French). Vol. 60. Athens: École française d'Athènes. p. paragraphs 30-37. doi:10.4000/books.efa.2901. ISBN 978-2-86958-307-8. Retrieved 18 September 2026.
  27. ↑ Iacovou, Maria (2018). "From the Late Cypriot Polities to the Iron Age "Kingdoms": Understanding the Political Landscape of Cyprus from Within". In Cannavò, Anna; Thély, Ludovic (eds.). Les royaumes de Chypre à l'épreuve de l'histoire: Transitions et ruptures de la fin de l'âge du Bronze au début de l'époque hellénistique [The Kingdoms of Cyprus Tested by History: Transitions and Ruptures from the End of the Bronze Age to the Beginning of the Hellenistic Period]. Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique Suppléments (in French). Vol. 60. Athens: École française d'Athènes. p. paragraph 12. doi:10.4000/books.efa.2901. ISBN 978-2-86958-307-8. Retrieved 18 September 2026.
  28. 1 2 3 Boedeker, Deborah D. (1974). Aphrodite's Entry into Greek Epic. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-03946-9.
  29. 1 2 3 Halczuk, Agnieszka. "Paphians outside Paphos. Inscriptions in the Paphian Syllabary found outside Cyprus". CyCoMed: Cypriot Coinage in the Mediterranean. Institute of Historical Research, National Hellenic Research Foundation. Retrieved 16 September 2026.
  30. ↑ Iacovou, Maria (2018). "From the Late Cypriot Polities to the Iron Age "Kingdoms": Understanding the Political Landscape of Cyprus from Within". In Cannavò, Anna; Thély, Ludovic (eds.). Les royaumes de Chypre à l'épreuve de l'histoire: Transitions et ruptures de la fin de l'âge du Bronze au début de l'époque hellénistique [The Kingdoms of Cyprus Tested by History: Transitions and Ruptures from the End of the Bronze Age to the Beginning of the Hellenistic Period]. Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique Suppléments (in French). Vol. 60. Athens: École française d'Athènes. pp. paragraphs 12, 30–37. doi:10.4000/books.efa.2901. ISBN 978-2-86958-307-8. Retrieved 18 September 2026.
  31. 1 2 3 4 Iacovou, Maria (2019). "Palaepaphos: Unlocking the Landscape Context of the Sanctuary of the Cypriot Goddess". Open Archaeology. 5 (1): 206. doi:10.1515/opar-2019-0015.
  32. ↑ Iacovou, Maria (2019). "Palaepaphos: Unlocking the Landscape Context of the Sanctuary of the Cypriot Goddess". Open Archaeology. 5 (1): 205. doi:10.1515/opar-2019-0015.
  33. ↑ Iacovou, Maria (2019). "Palaepaphos: Unlocking the Landscape Context of the Sanctuary of the Cypriot Goddess". Open Archaeology. 5 (1): 204. doi:10.1515/opar-2019-0015.

Sources

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Boardman, John; Hammond, N. G. L., eds. (1982). The Cambridge Ancient History (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521234474. ISBN 978-1-139-05430-0.

Boedeker, Deborah D. (1974). Aphrodite's Entry into Greek Epic. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-03946-9.

De Graauw, Arthur. "Silting up". Ancient Ports - Ports Antiques. Retrieved 29 September 2026.

Halczuk, Agnieszka. "Paphians outside Paphos. Inscriptions in the Paphian Syllabary found outside Cyprus". CyCoMed: Cypriot Coinage in the Mediterranean. Institute of Historical Research, National Hellenic Research Foundation. Retrieved 16 September 2026.

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"Archaeological Museum of the Pafos District". Department of Antiquities, Republic of Cyprus. Retrieved October 11, 2026.

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"Local Archaeological Museum of Palaipafos (Kouklia)". Department of Antiquities, Republic of Cyprus. Retrieved October 11, 2026.

"The Project". Palaepaphos Urban Landscape Project (PULP), University of Cyprus. Retrieved October 11, 2026.

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