Published online by Cambridge University Press: 25 September 2018
Focusing particularly on the Madras College of Physical Education opened in 1919, this article reconstructs the role of the United States of America-dominated Indian Young Men's Christian Association (YMCA) in the spread of physical-education schemes in South Asia between the beginning of the century and the outbreak of the Second World War. American YMCA secretaries stressed the scientific, liberal, and egalitarian character of their ‘physical programme’ aiming at the training of responsible and self-controlled citizens and therefore supposedly offering an alternative to British imperial sports. The study demonstrates that the Y indeed exercised a considerable influence by acting as adviser to provincial and ‘princely’ governments as well as through the graduates of the Madras College of Physical Education (MCPE), many of whom became physical directors in educational institutions in India, Burma, Ceylon and other Asian countries. At the same time, it also makes clear that North American models could not be transplanted in a simple or straightforward manner to South Asian contexts. For one, in spite of its representation as a ‘school for democracy’, the Y's supposedly inclusive and emancipatory discourses and practices of physical fitness remained over-determined by the powerful influences of the colonial discourse of race, and the programme of the Indian Y continued to be rife with the imperial tropes of somatic Orientalism predicated on the idea of fundamental difference between Westerners and South Asians. Likewise, the Y's sports mission turned out to be less American than its advocates had hoped: ‘sportified’ versions of local games and physical exercises played an ever-increasing role in the numerous institutions of the Y in South Asia, leading eventually to a thorough ‘pidginization’ of its fitness regime.
This article has been in the making for some time. I presented various versions of it at the 4th ENIUGH Conference held at the École Normale Supérieure in Paris in September 2014; the conference ‘Sport and Society in Transnational Contexts’, organized by Souvik Naha and myself at ETH Zurich in June, 2015; and the Seminar of the Department of History and Sociology of Science at the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia in September 2015. I wish to thank the audiences for their precious input. I am also grateful to Carey Watt, Projit B. Mukharji, Pushkar Sohoni, Stefan Hübner, Katrin Bromber, Andreas Greiner, Robert Kramm, Vasudha Bhardwaj, Bernhard C. Schär, Judith Große, Michael Brunner, Joanna Simonow, Monique Ligtenberg as well as Modern Asian Studies’ anonymous reviewers for reading earlier drafts and making valuable suggestions for the improvement of the text.
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85 Gray, J. H., ‘Physical Department: Its Place and Opportunities in India [Pt. I]’, The Young Men of India, vol. 21, 1910, pp. 56–58Google Scholar, here p. 56.
86 KFYA, Biographical Files [hereafter BF], Box 73, File ‘Biographical Data. Gray, John Henry’, letter by J. H. Gray to Wuh Chi Tang, 22 August 1952. If not indicated otherwise, the following is based on information gathered from KFYA, BR, Box 73, File ‘Biographical Data. Gray, John Henry’.
87 Xu, Guoqi, Olympic Dreams: China and Sports, 1895–2008, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA and London, 2008, p. 26CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Morris, Marrow of the Nation, pp. 59 and 77–79.
88 Gray, J. H., ‘Physical Department: Its Place and Opportunities in India [Pt. II]’, The Young Men of India, vol. 21, 1910, p. 75–79Google Scholar, here pp. 76ff. This iconoclastic strategy is remindful of the methods developed by British ‘imperial’ missionaries such as C. E. Tyndale-Biscoe, whose activities have been famously described by Mangan and others. Cf. Tyndale-Biscoe, C. E., Character Building in Kashmir, CMS, London, 1920Google Scholar.
89 Ibid.
90 Ibid., p. 78; and Gray, J. H., ‘More than Record Making: What Physical Education Means in India’, Association Men, August 1916, p. 610Google Scholar.
91 Gray, ‘India's Physical Renaissance’, p. 341.
92 Gray, ‘More than Record Making’, p. 611. The linkage between sport and democracy that was articulated here for the first time by the National Physical Director would become a running trope in the Y's fitness discourse in South Asia over the next decades. In all likelihood, it was also influenced by the teachings of his Springfield professor Luther Gulick. Already in the late 1880s, Gulick had made it a point that team games in particular by offering ‘freedom conditioned by rules and by the desires of other’ would be a perfect tool to prepare young men ‘for wider loyalty and a more discerning self-devotion on which democracy rests’. Gulick, Philosophy of Play, pp. 262ff.
93 KFYA, BF, Box 73, Folder ‘Biographical Data—Gray, John Henry’, Dr John Henry Gray, typewritten manuscript, n.d. [1919].
94 Johnson, History of the YMCA Physical Education, p. 54.
95 Gray, ‘More than Record Making’, p. 611.
96 Segard, C. P., Annual Report of the Director of Physical Education to the Department of Public Instruction, Bengal for the Year 1918–1919, Calcutta, 1919, p. 1Google Scholar; Segard, C. P., Quinquennial Report on Physical Education in the Province of Bengal for the Years 1911–12 to 1916–17, Calcutta, 1917, p. 1Google Scholar; Government of Bengal, Report of the Committee of Enquiry into School and College Hygiene, Calcutta, 1915Google Scholar; Gray, J. H., Major Games: Games Handbook, Association Press, Calcutta, 1918Google Scholar.
97 Nish, I. H., Calcutta Y.M.C.A.: A History 1857–1957, YMCA Publishing House, Calcutta, 1957, pp. 37–40Google Scholar; and Dunderdale, The Y.M.C.A. in India, p. 103.
98 KFYA, IWI, Box 62, Folder ‘Madras, Physical Training Scool, 1924–27’, National Physical Training School Madras [undated typescript, circa 1927].
99 For an insight into the YMCA's cooperation with princely states, see, for example, Wilbert B. Smith, ‘Fusing Races and Interests in India’, Foreign Mail, vol. 25, 1918, pp. 7–9; and KFYA, IWI, Box 10, H. Beall, Chief Inspector Physical Education to the Office of the Chief Inspector of Secondary Schools, H.E.H. the Nizam's Government, 15 January 1921.
100 KFYA, IWI, Box 1, John Henry Gray, The Pros and Cons of the Development of Modern Physical Education in India through the Indian National Council and Local Y.M.C.A.s, n.d. [circa 1955], p. 4.
101 Times of India, 5 August 1913, p. 4.
102 UP State Archives Lucknow, Education Proceedings 58 of 1916, Files 1–3, April 1916, Appendix B, ‘Tentative Plan of Physical Education for Nagpur University, submitted by the National Council of Young Men's Christian Associations’, p. 12.
103 McClelland, D. F., ‘H. C. Buck’, in Three Y.M.C.A. Pioneers, Appasamy, S. P. (ed.), YMCA Publishing House, Calcutta, 1958, pp. 12–18Google Scholar.
104 Times of India, 10 July 1923, p. 9; and 7 October 1925, p. 12. See also Noehren, A. G., ‘Indian Athletes at the Olympic Games’, Young Men of India, vol. 25, 1924, pp. 598–609Google Scholar; and Majumdar and Mehta, India and the Olympics, pp. 17–24.
105 Gray, ‘More than Record Making’, p. 611.
106 Segard, Annual Report of the Director of Physical Education 1918–1919, p. 1. It has to be mentioned that a similar approach to physical education and fitness, emphasizing the importance of play, was propagated by Robert Baden-Powell and the Boy Scout movement. See Watt, Carey A., ‘The Promise of “Character” and the Spectre of Sedition: The Boy Scout Movement and Colonial Consternation in India, 1908–1921’, South Asia, vol. 22, 1999, pp. 37–62CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
107 KFYA, IWI, Box 1, John Henry Gray, The Pros and Cons of the Development of Modern Physical Education in India through the Indian National Council and Local Y.M.C.A.s, n.d. [circa 1955].
108 Ibid.
109 North Adams Evening Transcript, 22 April 1938, pp. 8ff.
110 Yale University, Divinity School, New Haven, CT, Special Collections, Rec. Gr. 115, Series I, Waldo Huntley Heinrichs Papers, Box 7, Folder 61, Diaries 1916, entry for 14 January 1916.
111 Mark Dyreson, ‘Imperial “Deep Play”: Reading Sport and Visions of the Five Empires of the “New World”, 1919–1941’, The International History of Sport, vol. 28, 2011, pp. 2421–2447, here p. 2431. Cf. also Keys, Globalizing Sport, pp. 64–69.
112 KFYA, BF, Box 73, Folder ‘Biographical Data. Gray, John Henry’, letter by J. H. Gray to Wuh Chi Tang, 22 August 1952.
113 SCA, A Study of the Y.M.C.A. in India, pp. 210ff.
114 N.N., ‘Pioneer of Physical Education’, The Hindu, 23 April 2003, online edition, http://www.thehindu.com/thehindu/mp/2003/04/17/stories/2003041700230400.htm [accessed, 16 February 2017]. See also Harsha, Development of Physical Education.
115 I borrow the term ‘somatic engineering’ from Gimpel, Denise, ‘Civilizing Bodies: Somatic Engineering in China’, in Sport across Asia: Politics, Cultures, and Identities, Bromber, Katrin, Krawietz, Birgit, and Maguire, Joseph (eds), Routledge, New York, 2011, pp. 32–58Google Scholar.
116 Buck, H. C., ‘The Physical Department of the Y.M.C.A.’, The Young Men of India, vol. 32, 1921, pp. 340–346Google Scholar, here p. 340.
117 Buck, H. C., ‘Ourselves’, in The Annual of the Y.M.C.A. School of Physical Education, 1927–1928, Madras, 1928, p. 3Google Scholar.
118 KFYA, IWI, Box 62, Folder ‘Madras School of Physical Education, 1919–1923’, letter by G. S. Eddy to M. G. Goldsmith, 22 July 1919 and letter by D. F. McClelland to G. S. Eddy, 7 January 1920.
119 N.N., ‘Notes and Comments’, The Young Men of India, vol. 65 (9), 1943, p. 125Google Scholar.
120 KFYA, IWI, Box 62, Folder ‘Madras Physical Training School, 1932’, letter by H. C. Buck to F. V. Slack, 14 October 1932, containing 10 pp. typescript introduction to the ‘Y.M.C.A. College of Physical Education Project’.
121 YMCA College of Physical Education Saidapet, Madras, Prospectus 1940–41, Methodist Publishing House, Madras, 1941, p. 3Google Scholar; and KFYA, IWI, Box 80, Folder ‘Blue Prints of the Physical Education College Madras’.
122 KFYA, IWI, Box 1, Buck Report 1930.
123 David, The YMCA and the Making of Modern India, p. 176.
124 KFYA, BF, Box 25, Folder ‘Biographical Data Harry Crowe Buck’, typescript, Physical and Health Education as Means toward Abundant Living, n.d. [1939].
125 Ibid., typescript, Mr H. C. Buck (Excerpts from a Tribute by C. A. Abraham), n.d. [1943].
126 KFYA, IWI, Box 62, Folder ‘Madras Physical Training School, 1932’, typescript, YMCA College of Physical Project, p. 1; and KFYA, IWI, Box 1, Folder ‘Physical Education College 1922–1939’, Inauguration of the Y.M.C.A. Physical Education College at Saidapet, Madras.
127 Ibid.
128 Cf., for example, AWYI, Box ‘India Boys’ Work Lahore Young Men's Christian Association, ‘School for Democracy’, in Sixty-Fifth Annual Report (Report and Audited Statement of Accounts for the Year 1940), Lahore, 1941.
129 MCPE, Prospectus 1940–41, p. 21.
130 Ramaswamy, Sumathi, The Goddess and the Nation, Duke University Press, Durham, NC and London, 2010Google Scholar.
131 Hübner, ‘Muscular Christianity and the “Western Civilizing Mission”’; and Hübner, Stefan, Pan Asian Sports and the Emergence of Modern Asia, 1913–1974, NUS Press, Singapore, 2016, pp. 30–35Google Scholar.
132 Gray, J. Henry, ‘The Development of Physical Education in India’, Young Men of India, vol. 45, 1933, pp. 385ffGoogle Scholar.; KFYA, IWI, Box 1, Folder ‘Physical Education College 1922–1939’, H. C. Buck, Report on the National Y.M.C.A. School of Physical Education, April 1922; and Buck, ‘The Physical Department of the Y.M.C.A.’, p. 340.
133 N.N., ‘Directory of Students’, Vyayam, April 1930, pp. 38–43.
134 The information on Singh is gathered from the Khalsa College's monthly journal Durbar. I am grateful to my doctoral student Michael Brunner for sharing this source with me. Cf. Durbar, April/May 1932, p. 44; Durbar, November 1932, p. 45; Durbar, October 1934, p. 27; Durbar, April 1936, p. 72; and Durbar, March 1939, p. 67.
135 Durbar, December 1946, p. 3.
136 Buck, ‘The Physical Department of the Y.M.C.A.’, p. 341.
137 Weber, F., ‘Physical Education in the Association Programme’, The Young Men of India, vol. 45, 1933, pp. 389–391Google Scholar, here p. 390.
138 N.N., ‘Play that Opens Doors’, The Young Men of India, vol. 50, 1938, pp. 251–253Google Scholar.
139 Alter, Joseph, ‘Gandhi's Body, Gandhi's Truth: Nonviolence and the Biomoral Imperative of Public Health’, The Journal of Asian Studies, vol. 55, 1996, pp. 301–322CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
140 Bandopadhyaya, Sekhar, From Plassey to Partition: A History of Modern India, Orient BlackSwan, Hyderabad, 2009, pp. 282–284Google Scholar.
141 KFYA, BF, Box 73, File ‘Biographical Data. Gray, John Henry’, letter by J. H. Gray to Wuh Chi Tang, 22 August 1952.
142 There is a growing body of literature on the growth of the Eugenic movement in late-colonial India. Cf., for example, Hodges, Sarah, ‘South Asia's Eugenic Pasts’, in The Oxford Handbook of the History of Eugenics, Levine, Philippa and Bashford, Alison (eds), Oxford University Press, New York, 2010, pp. 228–242Google Scholar; Ahluwalia, Sanjam, Reproductive Restraints: Birth Control in India, 1877–1947, University of Illinois Press, Urbana, IL, 2008Google Scholar; Hodges, Sarah, ‘Indian Eugenics in an Age of Reform’, in Reproductive Health in India: History, Politics, Controversies, Hodges, Sarah (ed.), Orient Longman, New Delhi, 2006, pp. 115–138Google Scholar; and Fischer-Tiné, Harald, ‘From Brahmacharya to “Conscious Race Culture”: Indian Nationalism, Hindu Tradition and Victorian Discourses of Science’, in Beyond Representation: The Construction of Identity in Colonial India, Bates, Crispin (ed.), Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2006, pp. 230–259Google Scholar.
143 KFYA, IWI, Box 62, Folder ‘Madras (Physical Training School), 1938–1954’, clipping of articles from the Madras Mail and The Hindu, 1 July 1939.
144 David, The YMCA and the Making of Modern India, p. 255.
145 Noehren, Official Report of the Director of Physical Education 1927–28, p. 1.
146 Eddy, Sherwood, The Challenge of the East, Farrar & Rinehart, New York, 1931, p. 56Google Scholar.
147 This concept is inspired by Joseph Alter's term ‘somatic nationalism’. Cf. Alter, Joseph S., ‘Somatic Nationalism: Indian Wrestling and Militant Hinduism’, Modern Asian Studies, vol. 28, 1994, pp. 557–588CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
148 Eddy, Sherwood, The New Era in Asia, Missionary Education Movement of the United States and Canada, New York, 1913, p. 56Google Scholar.
149 N.N., Youth in Harness: The All-India Service of the Y.M.C.A., Calcutta, n.d. [1930]Google Scholar.
150 Buck, ‘The Physical Department of the Y.M.C.A.’, p. 345.
151 The concept of Eigensinn (literally: obstinacy) has been famously introduced by German historian Alf Lüdtke in the 1980s to render acts of subversion and resistance of subaltern groups in asymmetrical power relations visible. He was thereby restoring their agency and subjectivity that had almost completely gone, lost under the combined influence of Marxist-inspired social history and the linguistic turn. See Lüdtke, Alf, ‘Cash, Coffee-Breaks, Horseplay. Eigensinn and Politics among Factory Workers in Germany circa 1900’, in Confrontation: Class Consciousness, and the Labor Process: Studies in Proletarian Class Formation, Hanagan, Michael and Stephenson, Charles (eds), Greenwood, New York, 1986, pp. 65–95Google Scholar.
152 Cf. van Bottenburg, ‘Beyond Diffusion’; Dunch, ‘Beyond Cultural Imperialism’; and Katrin Bromber, Birgit Krawietz, and Joseph Maguire, ‘Introduction: From Asian Sports to Sport in Asia’, in Bromber et al. (eds), Sport across Asia, pp. 1–10.
153 KFYA, IWI, Box 20, Biennial Report of George Sherwood Eddy, November 1898.
154 KFYA, IWI, Box 11, Folder ‘India Annual and quarterly reports 1926’, Annual Report 1926 by Harvey E. Becknell. For the classic treatment of British stereotype of the educated Bengali, see Sinha, Mrinalini, Colonial Masculinity: The ‘Manly Englishman’ and the ‘Effeminate Bengali’ in the Late Nineteenth Century, Manchester University Press, Manchester, 1995Google Scholar.
155 KFYA, IWI, Box 8, Folder ‘India Annual and Quarterly Reports 1917 [Mc-Mil]’, Annual Report by W.E. Elliott for the Year ending 30 September 1917.
156 Paul R. Danner, ‘India and Ceylon’, The Foreign Mail Annual, 1917, pp. 16–21, here p. 19.
157 Gray, ‘The Development of Physical Education’, p. 385.
158 Arthur G. Noehren, ‘Meeting a Tremendous Need for Physical Reform’, Foreign Mail, vol. 23, 1916, pp. 18–21, here p. 19.
159 For a succinct discussion of colonial clichés on the Indian body, see Dimeo, Paul, ‘A Parcel of Dummies? Sport and the Body in Indian History’, in Confronting the Body: The Politics of Physicality in Colonial and Post-Colonial India, Mills, James H. and Sen, Satadru (eds), Anthem Press, London, 2004, pp. 39–57Google Scholar, here pp. 42–45.
160 Buck, ‘The Physical Department of the Y.M.C.A.’, p. 345.
161 KFYA, IWI, Box 19, Folder ‘Eddy, G. Sherwood, Report Letters 1896–1898’, Report Letter No. 5, May 1897, The Scourges of India.
162 KFYA, IWI, Box 74, Folder ‘National Council India, Burma, Ceylon 1931’, letter from W. Healy to Frank [V. Slack], Rangoon, 7 July 1931.
163 Jagannath, ‘The Aims of Physical Education’, in The Annual of the Y.M.C.A. School of Physical Education, 1928–1929, Madras, 1929, pp. 21–23Google Scholar, here p. 23.
164 Mosse, George, The Image of Man: The Creation of Modern Masculinity, Oxford University Press, New York, 1996Google Scholar, pp. 5ff. Cf. also Zweininger-Bargielowska, Ina, Managing the Body: Beauty, Health and Fitness in Britain, 1880–1939, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2010, pp. 17–20CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
165 Such an interpretation could also help provide historical depth to recent arguments to the effect that twenty-first-century Bollywood stars’ fancy for bleaching creams could be read as complicity with Euro-American capitalist ideals of modernity and whiteness. See, for example, Osuri, Goldie, ‘Ash-Coloured Whiteness: The Transfiguration of Aishwarya Rai’, South Asian Popular Culture, vol. 6, no. 2, 2008, pp. 109–123CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
166 Kumar Sarkar, Benoy, The Futurism of Young Asia, and Other Essays on the Relations between the East and the West, Markert & Petters, Leipzig, 1922, p. IIIGoogle Scholar. That the production of fair-skinned offspring was one of the main goals in a particular current of Indian ‘vernacular’ medical advisory literature has recently been discussed in Savary, Luzia, ‘Vernacular Eugenics? Santati-Śāstra in Popular Hindi Advisory Literature (1900–1940)’, South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies, vol. 37, no. 3, 2014, pp. 381–397CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
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168 Schneider, Mark Robert, African Americans in the Jazz Age: A Decade of Struggle and Promise, Rowman & Littlefield, Lanham, MD, 2006, pp. 40ffGoogle Scholar. For a comprehensive account, see Mjagkij, Nina, Light in the Darkness: African Americans and the YMCA, 1852–1946, University Press of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, 1994Google Scholar.
169 Gray, ‘The Development of Physical Education’, p. 385.
170 Foreign Division of the Young Men's Christian Association of the United States and Canada, The Y.M.C.A. in India, New York, s.l., sa., not paginated.
171 Second Qinquennial Report of the Welfare Work of Messrs. Begg, Sutherland & Co., Ltd, Cawnpore, n.d. [1939].
172 The literature on the nationalist revival of Indian wrestling and related forms of physical culture is vast. For a good overview and copious references, see Ganneri, Namrata R., ‘The Debate on “Revival” and the Physical Culture Movement in Western India (1900–1950)’, in Bromber et al. (eds), Sport across Asia, pp. 121–143Google Scholar. The seminal study still is Alter, Joseph S., The Wrestler's Body: Identity and Ideology in North India, University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, 1992CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
173 See, for example, Farquhar, J. N., Modern Religious Movements in India, Macmillan, New York, 1915, pp. 125 and 444Google Scholar; Fischer-Tiné, Harald, Der Gurukul Kangri oder die Erziehung der Arya Nation: Kolonialismus, Hindureform und ‘nationale Bildung’ in Britisch-Indien (1897–1922), Ergon, Würzburg, 2003Google Scholar, pp. 88ff.; and Oberoi, Harjot, The Construction of Religious Boundaries: Culture, Identity, and Diversity in the Sikh Tradition, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 1997, pp. 412ffGoogle Scholar.
174 The term ‘pirate copy’ ought not to be misunderstood as implying a one-to-one recreation of the Y-original. As I have explained above, the process was rather one of ‘pidginization’, namely a pragmatic and very selective appropriation of certain elements of the original.
175 Cf., for example, Report of the Bombay Gymnastic Institute for the Years 1927–28, 1928–29, 1929–30, Bombay, n.d. [1930]. See also Fischer-Tiné, ‘Character Building and Manly Games’, p. 454; Alter, ‘Physical Education’; and Alter, ‘Kabaddi, a National Sport of India’.
176 Vertinsky, Patricia, ‘Yoga Comes to American Physical Education: Josephine Rathbone and Corrective Physical Education’, Journal of Sports History, vol. 41, no. 2, 2014, pp. 287–311Google Scholar.
177 A list of the more important representatives of this Indian competition would include, amongst others, the Deshpande brothers, who founded Hanuman Vyayam Prasarak Mandal in Amravati; the Ghose brothers and Yogoda in Ranchi, under the inspired leadership of Yogananda and his younger brother, Bishnu Charan Ghose; Shri Yogendra in Bombay; and Raj Ratan Manikrao in Baroda. For more details, cf. Ganneri, ‘The Debate on “Revival”’.
178 Noehren, Official Report of the Director of Physical Education 1927–28, pp. 13ff.
179 N.N., Report of the Conference on Physical Education held at Madras on the 14th and 15th October 1927 under the Presidency of the Hon, Dr. p. Subbaroyan, M.A., C.C.L., LL.D., Chief Minister to the Government of Madras, Madras, 1928, pp. 3–7.
180 Buck, H. C., ‘The Place of Indigenous Activities in the Physical Education Programme’, in Buck Commemoration Volume: Being A Memorial Dedicated to Harry Crowe Buck, Govindarajulu, L. K. (ed.), Buck Commemoration Volume Committee, Saidapet, 1949, pp. 247–251Google Scholar, here p. 251.
181 Buck's Book of Rules of Games and Sports (revised by the Staff of the YMCA College, Saidapet Madras), 12th edn, YMCA Publishing House, Calcutta, 1949, pp. 192–227.
182 Noehren, Official Report of the Director of Physical Education 1927–28, pp. 14ff.
183 Ibid., pp. 14ff.; and Weber, ‘Physical Education in the Association Programme’, p. 390.
184 Singleton, Yoga Body, p. 91.
185 Ibid., p. 93.
186 Cf. also Vertinsky, ‘Yoga Comes to American Physical Education’; and Vertinsky, Patricia, ‘“Building the Body Beautiful”: The Women's League of Health and Beauty: Yoga and Female Agency in 1930s Britain’, Rethinking History: The Journal of Theory and Practice, vol. 16, 2012, pp. 517–542CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Newcombe, Suzanne, ‘Stretching for Health and Well-Being: Yoga and Women in Britain, 1960– 1980’, Asian Medicine: Tradition and Modernity, vol. 3, no. 1, 2007, pp. 37–63CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
187 van der Veer, Peter (ed.), Conversion to Modernities: The Globalization of Christianity, Routledge, New York, 1996Google Scholar.
188 See note 70 above.
189 Mookerjee, Swapan and Pinheiro, Victo, ‘Physical Education and After-School Programs in Modern India—Policies, Polity and Contemporary Developments’, in Global Perspectives on Physical Education and After-School Sports Programs, Chepyator-Thomson, Jepkorir R. and Hsu, Shan-Hui (eds), University Press of America, Lanham, MD, 2013, pp. 91–111Google Scholar, here pp. 99ff.; and Alter, Joseph, ‘Yoga and Physical Education: Swami Kuvalayananda's Nationalist Project’, Asian Medicine: Tradition and Modernity, vol. 3, no. 1, 2007, pp. 20–36CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
190 Kramer, ‘Power and Connection’, p. 1387.
